SherbyNet - /page/wikibook/entry.mu

Micron Document

<!DOCTYPE html>

<title>Perception</title>

</head>

Perception

</h1>

</header>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="Perception_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Perception (disambiguation)">Perception (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Percept" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="Percept_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Percept (disambiguation)">Percept (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-top:0.2em;background:#ccccff;"><a href="Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-bottom:0;padding:0.8em;"></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="display:block; margin-bottom:0.35em;">

<ul><li><a href="Outline_of_psychology" title="Outline of psychology">Outline</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_psychology" title="History of psychology">History</a></li>

<li><a href="Subfields_of_psychology" title="Subfields of psychology">Subfields</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Basic_science_(psychology)" title="Basic science (psychology)">Basic psychology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt">

<ul><li><a href="Abnormal_psychology" title="Abnormal psychology">Abnormal</a></li>

<li><a href="Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective neuroscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Affective_science" title="Affective science">Affective science</a></li>

<li><a href="Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive</a>/<a href="Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">Cognitive neuroscience</a>

<ul><li><a href="Social_cognitive_neuroscience" title="Social cognitive neuroscience">Social</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Comparative_psychology" title="Comparative psychology">Comparative</a></li>

<li><a href="Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_psychology" title="Cultural psychology">Cultural</a></li>

<li><a href="Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">Developmental</a></li>

<li><a href="Differential_psychology" title="Differential psychology">Differential</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecological_psychology" title="Ecological psychology">Ecological</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary</a></li>

<li><a href="Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">Experimental</a></li>

<li><a href="Gestalt_psychology" title="Gestalt psychology">Gestalt</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_intelligence" title="Human intelligence">Intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematical_psychology" title="Mathematical psychology">Mathematical</a></li>

<li><a href="Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li>

<li>Perception</li>

<li><a href="Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">Personality</a></li>

<li><a href="Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">Psycholinguistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychophysiology" title="Psychophysiology">Psychophysiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantitative_psychology" title="Quantitative psychology">Quantitative</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social</a></li>

<li><a href="Theoretical_psychology" title="Theoretical psychology">Theoretical</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Applied_psychology" title="Applied psychology">Applied psychology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt">

<ul><li><a href="Anomalistic_psychology" title="Anomalistic psychology">Anomalistic</a></li>

<li><a href="Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Applied behavior analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychological_testing" title="Psychological testing">Assessment</a></li>

<li><a href="Aviation_psychology" title="Aviation psychology">Aviation</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychobiography" title="Psychobiography">Biography of famous people</a></li>

<li><a href="Clinical_psychology" title="Clinical psychology">Clinical</a></li>

<li><a href="Coaching_psychology" title="Coaching psychology">Coaching</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychology_of_color" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychology of color">Color</a></li>

<li><a href="Community_psychology" title="Community psychology">Community</a></li>

<li><a href="Consumer_behaviour" title="Consumer behaviour">Consumer</a></li>

<li><a href="Counseling_psychology" title="Counseling psychology">Counseling</a></li>

<li><a href="Critical_psychology" title="Critical psychology">Critical</a></li>

<li><a href="Educational_psychology" title="Educational psychology">Educational</a></li>

<li><a href="Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Ergonomics</a></li>

<li><a href="Fashion_psychology" title="Fashion psychology">Fashion</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_psychology" title="Feminist psychology">Feminist</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_psychology" title="Forensic psychology">Forensic</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_psychology" title="Health psychology">Health</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychohistory" title="Psychohistory">History</a></li>

<li><a href="Humanistic_psychology" title="Humanistic psychology">Humanistic</a></li>

<li><a href="Industrial_and_organizational_psychology" title="Industrial and organizational psychology">Industrial and organizational</a></li>

<li><a href="Legal_psychology" title="Legal psychology">Legal</a></li>

<li><a href="Media_psychology" title="Media psychology">Media</a></li>

<li><a href="Medical_psychology" title="Medical psychology">Medical</a></li>

<li><a href="Military_psychology" title="Military psychology">Military</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Music psychology">Music</a></li>

<li><a href="Occupational_health_psychology" title="Occupational health psychology">Occupational health</a></li>

<li><a href="Pastoral_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Pastoral psychology">Pastoral</a></li>

<li><a href="Peace_psychology" title="Peace psychology">Peace and war</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_psychology" title="Political psychology">Political</a></li>

<li><a href="Positive_psychology" title="Positive psychology">Positive</a></li>

<li><a href="Photo_psychology" title="Photo psychology">Photography</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">Psychotherapy</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Religion</a></li>

<li><a href="School_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="School psychology">School</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">Sex differences</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_psychology" title="Space psychology">Space</a></li>

<li><a href="Sport_psychology" title="Sport psychology">Sport and exercise</a></li>

<li><a href="Suicidology" title="Suicidology">Suicidology</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_psychology" title="Systems psychology">Systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Stock_trader" title="Stock trader">Trading</a></li>

<li><a href="Traffic_psychology" title="Traffic psychology">Traffic</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li><a href="Behavior" title="Behavior">Behavior</a></li>

<li><a href="Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Behavioral engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li>

<li><a href="Competence_(polyseme)" title="Competence (polyseme)">Competence</a></li>

<li><a href="Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li>

<li><a href="Consumer_behaviour" title="Consumer behaviour">Consumer behavior</a></li>

<li><a href="Emotion" title="Emotion">Emotions</a></li>

<li><a href="Feeling" title="Feeling">Feelings</a></li>

<li><a href="Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Human factors and ergonomics</a></li>

<li><a href="Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Maslow's_hierarchy_of_needs" title="Maslow's hierarchy of needs">Maslow's hierarchy of needs</a></li>

<li><a href="Mental_state" title="Mental state">Mental state</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Psychology of religion</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">Sex differences</a></li>

<li><a href="Terror_management_theory" title="Terror management theory">Terror management theory</a></li></ul>

</div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Lists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt">

<ul><li><a href="Outline_of_counseling" title="Outline of counseling">Counseling topics</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_branches_of_psychology" title="List of branches of psychology">Disciplines</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_psychology_organizations" title="List of psychology organizations">Organizations</a></li>

<li><a href="Outline_of_psychology" title="Outline of psychology">Outline</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_psychologists" title="List of psychologists">Psychologists</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_psychotherapies" title="List of psychotherapies">Psychotherapies</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_psychological_research_methods" title="List of psychological research methods">Research methods</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_psychological_schools" title="List of psychological schools">Schools of thought</a></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_psychology" title="Timeline of psychology">Timeline</a></li>

<li><a href="Index_of_psychology_articles" title="Index of psychology articles">Topics</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;">

<ul><li> <a href="Portal%3APsychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style></td></tr></tbody></table>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1288028385">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .sidebar-philosophy{max-width:22em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-philosophy .sidebar-pretitle{padding-top:0.8em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-philosophy .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{font-weight:bold;padding-bottom:0em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-philosophy .sidebar-image{padding:0.8em 0.8em 1em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-philosophy .sidebar-above{padding:0.5em 1.4em;display:block;background-color:var(--background-color-neutral,#efefef);margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-phi button{padding:0 0.2em}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist sidebar-philosophy"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above">

<ul><li> <a href="Portal%3APhilosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li>

<li>Contents</li>

<li><a href="Outline_of_philosophy" title="Outline of philosophy">Outline</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_philosophy" title="Glossary of philosophy">Glossary</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">History</a></li>

<li>Categories</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Philosophies</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading">

By period</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li><a href="Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li>

<li><a href="Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek</a></li>

<li><a href="Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></li>

<li><a href="Hundred_Schools_of_Thought" title="Hundred Schools of Thought">Chinese</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a>

<ul><li><a href="Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhism</a></li>

<li><a href="Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li>

<li><a href="Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a>

<ul><li><a href="Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a></li>

<li><a href="German_idealism" title="German idealism">Idealism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a>

<ul><li><a href="Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></li>

<li><a href="Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></li></ul></li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading">

<a href="Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li><a href="African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li>

<li><a href="Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">South African</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a>

<ul><li><a href="Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li>

<li><a href="Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li>

<li><a href="Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li>

<li><a href="Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li>

<li><a href="Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li>

<li><a href="Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Indigenous American</a>

<ul><li><a href="Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern</a>

<ul><li><a href="Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a>

<ul><li><a href="American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">United States</a></li>

<li><a href="British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a></li>

<li><a href="French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li>

<li><a href="German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li>

<li><a href="Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_philosophy" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li></ul></li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading">

<a href="Religious_philosophy" title="Religious philosophy">By religion</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li><a href="Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li>

<li><a href="Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a></li>

<li><a href="Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li>

<li><a href="Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a></li>

<li><a href="Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li>

<li><a href="Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></li>

<li><a href="Taoist_philosophy" title="Taoist philosophy">Taoist</a></li></ul></td>

</tr></tbody></table></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Branches</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li>

<li><a href="Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li></ul>

<hr>

<ul><li><a href="Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Education</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Language</a></li>

<li><a href="Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li>

<li><a href="Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Religion</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="Lists_of_philosophers" title="Lists of philosophers">Philosophers</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="List_of_philosophers_of_art" title="List of philosophers of art">Aesthetic philosophers</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_logicians" title="List of logicians">Logicians</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_philosophers_of_mind" title="List of philosophers of mind">Philosophers of mind</a></li>

<li><a href="Index_of_sociopolitical_thinkers" title="Index of sociopolitical thinkers">Social and political philosophers</a></li>

<li><a href="Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Women in philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"></td></tr></tbody></table>

<table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="padding:0.2em"><a href="Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #ccc;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="List_of_regions_in_the_human_brain" title="List of regions in the human brain">Brain regions</a></li>

<li><a href="Clinical_neuropsychology" title="Clinical neuropsychology">Clinical neuropsychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_neuropsychology" title="Cognitive neuropsychology">Cognitive neuropsychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">Cognitive neuroscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Dementia" title="Dementia">Dementia</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_brain" title="Human brain">Human brain</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuroanatomy" title="Neuroanatomy">Neuroanatomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Neurophysiology" title="Neurophysiology">Neurophysiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuropsychological_assessment" title="Neuropsychological assessment">Neuropsychological assessment</a></li>

<li><a href="Rehabilitation_(neuropsychology)" title="Rehabilitation (neuropsychology)">Neuropsychological rehabilitation</a></li>

<li><a href="Traumatic_brain_injury" title="Traumatic brain injury">Traumatic brain injury</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #ccc;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Brain" title="Brain">Brain functions</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Arousal" title="Arousal">Arousal</a></li>

<li><a href="Attention" title="Attention">Attention</a></li>

<li><a href="Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li>

<li><a href="Decision-making" title="Decision-making">Decision making</a></li>

<li><a href="Executive_functions" title="Executive functions">Executive functions</a></li>

<li><a href="Natural_language" title="Natural language">Natural language</a></li>

<li><a href="Learning" title="Learning">Learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory" title="Memory">Memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Motor_coordination" title="Motor coordination">Motor coordination</a></li>

<li><a href="Planning" title="Planning">Planning</a></li>

<li><a href="Problem_solving" title="Problem solving">Problem solving</a></li>

<li><a href="Thought" title="Thought">Thought</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #ccc;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">People</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Alan_Baddeley" title="Alan Baddeley">Alan Baddeley</a></li>

<li><a href="Arthur_Lester_Benton" title="Arthur Lester Benton">Arthur L. Benton</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Bohm" title="David Bohm">David Bohm</a></li>

<li><a href="Antonio_Damasio" title="Antonio Damasio">Antonio Damasio</a></li>

<li><a href="Phineas_Gage" title="Phineas Gage">Phineas Gage</a></li>

<li><a href="Norman_Geschwind" title="Norman Geschwind">Norman Geschwind</a></li>

<li><a href="Elkhonon_Goldberg" title="Elkhonon Goldberg">Elkhonon Goldberg</a></li>

<li><a href="Patricia_Goldman-Rakic" title="Patricia Goldman-Rakic">Patricia Goldman-Rakic</a></li>

<li><a href="Donald_O._Hebb" title="Donald O. Hebb">Donald O. Hebb</a></li>

<li><a href="Kenneth_Heilman" title="Kenneth Heilman">Kenneth Heilman</a></li>

<li><a href="Eric_Kandel" title="Eric Kandel">Eric Kandel</a></li>

<li><a href="Edith_Kaplan" title="Edith Kaplan">Edith Kaplan</a></li>

<li><a href="Muriel_Lezak" title="Muriel Lezak">Muriel Lezak</a></li>

<li><a href="Benjamin_Libet" title="Benjamin Libet">Benjamin Libet</a></li>

<li><a href="Rodolfo_Llin%C3%A1s" title="Rodolfo Llinás">Rodolfo Llinás</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexander_Luria" title="Alexander Luria">Alexander Luria</a></li>

<li><a href="Brenda_Milner" title="Brenda Milner">Brenda Milner</a></li>

<li><a href="Karl_H._Pribram" title="Karl H. Pribram">Karl H. Pribram</a></li>

<li><a href="Pasko_Rakic" title="Pasko Rakic">Pasko Rakic</a></li>

<li><a href="Oliver_Sacks" title="Oliver Sacks">Oliver Sacks</a></li>

<li><a href="Mark_Rosenzweig_(psychologist)" title="Mark Rosenzweig (psychologist)">Mark Rosenzweig</a></li>

<li><a href="Roger_Wolcott_Sperry" title="Roger Wolcott Sperry">Roger W. Sperry</a></li>

<li><a href="Hans-Lukas_Teuber" title="Hans-Lukas Teuber">Hans-Lukas Teuber</a></li>

<li><a href="Henry_Molaison" title="Henry Molaison">Henry Molaison ("H.M.", patient)</a></li>

<li><a href="Kent_Cochrane" title="Kent Cochrane">K.C. (patient)</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #ccc;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Neuropsychological_test" title="Neuropsychological test">Tests</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Benton_Visual_Retention_Test" title="Benton Visual Retention Test">Benton Visual Retention Test</a></li>

<li><a href="Continuous_performance_task" title="Continuous performance task">Continuous Performance Task</a></li>

<li><a href="Halstead%E2%80%93Reitan_Neuropsychological_Battery" title="Halstead–Reitan Neuropsychological Battery">Halstead–Reitan Neuropsychological Battery</a></li>

<li><a href="Hayling_and_Brixton_tests" title="Hayling and Brixton tests">Hayling and Brixton tests</a></li>

<li><a href="Lexical_decision_task" title="Lexical decision task">Lexical Decision Task</a></li>

<li><a href="Luria%E2%80%93Nebraska_Neuropsychological_Battery" title="Luria–Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery">Luria–Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery</a></li>

<li><a href="Mini%E2%80%93mental_state_examination" title="Mini–mental state examination">Mini–mental state examination</a></li>

<li><a href="Rey%E2%80%93Osterrieth_complex_figure" title="Rey–Osterrieth complex figure">Rey–Osterrieth complex figure</a></li>

<li><a href="Stroop_effect" title="Stroop effect">Stroop Test</a></li>

<li><a href="Wechsler_Adult_Intelligence_Scale" title="Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale">Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale</a></li>

<li><a href="Wechsler_Memory_Scale" title="Wechsler Memory Scale">Wechsler Memory Scale</a></li>

<li><a href="Wisconsin_Card_Sorting_Test" title="Wisconsin Card Sorting Test">Wisconsin Card Sorting Task</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.4em 0 0.5em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;">

<ul><li> <a href="Portal%3APsychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology portal</a></li>

<li> <a href="Portal%3APhilosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li>

<li> <a href="Portal%3AMedicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Medicine portal</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"></td></tr></tbody></table>

Perception (from <a href="Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/perceptio#Latin" class="extiw external" title="wikt:perceptio">perceptio</a> 'gathering, receiving') is the organization, identification, and interpretation of <a href="Sense" title="Sense">sensory</a> information in order to represent and understand the presented information or environment.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> All perception involves signals that go through the <a href="Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a>, which in turn result from physical or chemical stimulation of the <a href="Sensory_nervous_system" title="Sensory nervous system">sensory system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Goldstein52-3">[3]</a> <a href="Visual_system" title="Visual system">Vision</a> involves <a href="Light" title="Light">light</a> striking the <a href="Retina" title="Retina">retina</a> of the <a href="Eye" title="Eye">eye</a>; <a href="Sense_of_smell" title="Sense of smell">smell</a> is mediated by <a href="Olfactory_system#Peripheral" title="Olfactory system">odor molecules</a>; and <a href="Hearing" title="Hearing">hearing</a> involves <a href="Sound_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound wave">pressure waves</a>.

Perception is not only the passive receipt of these <a href="Signal_processing" title="Signal processing">signals</a>, but it is also shaped by the recipient's <a href="Perceptual_learning" title="Perceptual learning">learning</a>, <a href="Memory" title="Memory">memory</a>, <a href="Expectation_(epistemic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Expectation (epistemic)">expectation</a>, and <a href="Attention" title="Attention">attention</a>.<a href="#cite_note-mind_perception2-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bernstein20102-5">[5]</a> Sensory input is a process that transforms this low-level information to higher-level information (e.g., extracts shapes for <a href="Cognitive_neuroscience_of_visual_object_recognition" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive neuroscience of visual object recognition">object recognition</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Bernstein20102-5">[5]</a> The following process connects a person's concepts and expectations (or <a href="Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>) with restorative and selective mechanisms, such as <a href="Attention" title="Attention">attention</a>, that influence perception.

Perception depends on complex functions of the <a href="Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a>, but subjectively seems mostly effortless because this processing happens outside <a href="Consciousness" title="Consciousness">conscious</a> <a href="Awareness" title="Awareness">awareness</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Goldstein52-3">[3]</a> Since the rise of <a href="Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">experimental psychology</a> in the 19th century, <a href="Perceptual_psychology" title="Perceptual psychology">psychology's understanding of perception</a> has progressed by combining a variety of techniques.<a href="#cite_note-mind_perception2-4">[4]</a> <a href="Psychophysics" title="Psychophysics">Psychophysics</a> <a href="Quantitatively" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantitatively">quantitatively</a> describes the relationships between the physical qualities of the sensory input and perception.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> <a href="Sensory_neuroscience" title="Sensory neuroscience">Sensory neuroscience</a> studies the neural mechanisms underlying perception. Perceptual systems can also be studied <a href="Computation" title="Computation">computationally</a>, in terms of the information they process. <a href="Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Perceptual issues in philosophy</a> include the extent to which sensory qualities such as <a href="Sound" title="Sound">sound</a>, smell or <a href="Color" title="Color">color</a> exist in objective reality rather than in the mind of the perceiver.<a href="#cite_note-mind_perception2-4">[4]</a>

Although people traditionally viewed the senses as passive receptors, the study of <a href="Illusion" title="Illusion">illusions</a> and <a href="Ambiguous_image" title="Ambiguous image">ambiguous images</a> has demonstrated that the <a href="Brain" title="Brain">brain</a>'s perceptual systems actively and pre-consciously attempt to make sense of their input.<a href="#cite_note-mind_perception2-4">[4]</a> There is still active debate about the extent to which perception is an active process of <a href="Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothesis</a> testing, analogous to <a href="Science" title="Science">science</a>, or whether realistic sensory information is rich enough to make this process unnecessary.<a href="#cite_note-mind_perception2-4">[4]</a>

The <a href="Perceptual_system" title="Perceptual system">perceptual systems</a> of the brain enable individuals to see the world around them as stable, even though the sensory information is typically incomplete and rapidly varying. Human and other animal brains are structured in a <a href="Cognitive_module" title="Cognitive module">modular way</a>, with different areas processing different kinds of sensory information. Some of these modules take the form of <a href="Sensory_Maps" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory Maps">sensory maps</a>, mapping some aspect of the world across part of the brain's surface. These different modules are interconnected and influence each other. For instance, <a href="Taste" title="Taste">taste</a> is strongly influenced by smell.<a href="#cite_note-DeVereCalvert2010_332-7">[7]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Process_and_terminology">Process and terminology</h2></div>

The process of perception begins with an object in the real world, known as the <a href="Distal" class="mw-redirect" title="Distal">distal</a> stimulus or distal object.<a href="#cite_note-Goldstein52-3">[3]</a> By means of light, sound, or another physical process, the object stimulates the body's sensory organs. These sensory organs transform the input energy into neural activity—a process called <a href="Transduction_(physiology)" title="Transduction (physiology)">transduction</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Goldstein52-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-pomerantz-8">[8]</a> This raw pattern of neural activity is called the proximal stimulus.<a href="#cite_note-Goldstein52-3">[3]</a> These neural signals are then transmitted to the brain and processed.<a href="#cite_note-Goldstein52-3">[3]</a> The resulting mental re-creation of the distal stimulus is the percept.

To explain the process of perception, an example could be an ordinary shoe. The shoe itself is the distal stimulus. When light from the shoe enters a person's eye and stimulates the retina, that stimulation is the proximal stimulus.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> The image of the shoe reconstructed by the brain of the person is the percept. Another example could be a ringing telephone. The ringing of the phone is the distal stimulus. The sound stimulating a person's auditory receptors is the proximal stimulus. The brain's interpretation of this as the "ringing of a telephone" is the percept.

The different kinds of sensation (such as warmth, sound, and taste) are called <a href="Stimulus_modality" title="Stimulus modality">sensory modalities</a> or stimulus modalities.<a href="#cite_note-pomerantz-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-WillisCoggeshall2004-10">[10]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bruner's_model_of_the_perceptual_process">Bruner's model of the perceptual process</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Social_identity_theory" title="Social identity theory">Social identity theory</a></div>

Psychologist <a href="Jerome_Bruner" title="Jerome Bruner">Jerome Bruner</a> developed a model of perception, in which people put "together the information contained in" a target and a situation to form "perceptions of ourselves and others based on social categories."<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Alan-12">[12]</a> This model is composed of three states:

<ol><li>When people encounter an unfamiliar target, they are very open to the informational <a href="Sensory_cue" title="Sensory cue">cues</a> contained in the target and the situation surrounding it.</li>

<li>The first stage does not give people enough information on which to base perceptions of the target, so they will actively seek out cues to resolve this ambiguity. Gradually, people collect some familiar cues that enable them to make a rough categorization of the target.</li>

<li>The cues become less open and selective. People try to search for more cues that confirm the categorization of the target. They actively ignore and distort cues that violate their initial perceptions. Their perception becomes more selective and they finally paint a consistent picture of the target.</li></ol>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Saks_and_John's_three_components_to_perception">Saks and John's three components to perception</h3></div>

According to Alan Saks and Gary Johns, there are three components to perception:<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a>

<ol><li>The Perceiver: a person whose awareness is focused on the stimulus, and thus begins to perceive it. There are many factors that may influence the perceptions of the perceiver, while the three major ones include (1) <a href="Motivation" title="Motivation">motivational state</a>, (2) <a href="Emotional_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Emotional state">emotional state</a>, and (3) <a href="Experience" title="Experience">experience</a>. All of these factors, especially the first two, greatly contribute to how the person perceives a situation. Oftentimes, the perceiver may employ what is called a "perceptual defense", where the person will only see what they want to see.</li>

<li>The Target: the object of perception; something or someone who is being perceived. The amount of information gathered by the sensory organs of the perceiver affects the interpretation and understanding about the target.</li>

<li>The Situation: the environmental factors, timing, and degree of stimulation that affect the process of perception. These factors may render a single stimulus to be left as merely a stimulus, not a percept that is subject for brain interpretation.</li></ol>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Multistable_perception">Multistable perception</h4></div>

Stimuli are not necessarily translated into a percept and rarely does a single stimulus translate into a percept. An ambiguous stimulus may sometimes be transduced into one or more percepts, experienced randomly, one at a time, in a process termed <a href="Multistable_perception" title="Multistable perception">multistable perception</a>. The same stimuli, or absence of them, may result in different percepts depending on subject's culture and previous experiences.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a>

Ambiguous figures demonstrate that a single stimulus can result in more than one percept. For example, the <a href="Rubin_vase" title="Rubin vase">Rubin vase</a> can be interpreted either as a vase or as two faces. The percept can bind sensations from multiple senses into a whole. A picture of a talking person on a television screen, for example, is bound to the sound of speech from speakers to form a percept of a talking person.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_perception">Types of perception</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vision">Vision</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception</a></div>

In many ways, vision is the primary human sense. Light is taken in through each eye and focused in a way which sorts it on the retina according to direction of origin. A dense surface of photosensitive cells, including rods, cones, and <a href="Intrinsically_photosensitive_retinal_ganglion_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells">intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells</a> captures information about the intensity, color, and position of incoming light. Some processing of texture and movement occurs within the neurons on the retina before the information is sent to the brain. In total, about 15 differing types of information are then forwarded to the brain proper via the optic nerve.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a>

The timing of perception of a visual event, at points along the visual circuit, have been measured. A sudden alteration of light at a spot in the environment first alters photoreceptor cells in the <a href="Retina" title="Retina">retina</a>, which send a signal to the <a href="Retina_bipolar_cell" title="Retina bipolar cell">retina bipolar cell</a> layer which, in turn, can activate a retinal ganglion neuron cell. A retinal ganglion cell is a bridging neuron that connects visual retinal input to the visual processing centers within the central nervous system.<a href="#cite_note-pmid34093409-16">[16]</a> Light-altered neuron activation occurs within about 5–20 milliseconds in a rabbit retinal ganglion,<a href="#cite_note-pmid9144251-17">[17]</a> although in a mouse retinal ganglion cell the initial spike takes between 40 and 240 milliseconds before the initial activation.<a href="#cite_note-pmid31641196-18">[18]</a> The initial activation can be detected by an <a href="Action_potential" title="Action potential">action potential</a> spike, a sudden spike in neuron membrane electric voltage.

A perceptual visual event measured in humans was the presentation to individuals of an anomalous word. If these individuals are shown a sentence, presented as a sequence of single words on a computer screen, with a puzzling word out of place in the sequence, the perception of the puzzling word can register on an electroencephalogram (EEG). In an experiment, human readers wore an elastic cap with 64 embedded electrodes distributed over their scalp surface.<a href="#cite_note-pmid23515395-19">[19]</a> Within 230 milliseconds of encountering the anomalous word, the human readers generated an event-related electrical potential alteration of their EEG at the left occipital-temporal channel, over the left occipital lobe and temporal lobe.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sound">Sound</h3></div>

<a href="Hearing" title="Hearing">Hearing</a> (or audition) is the ability to perceive <a href="Sound" title="Sound">sound</a> by detecting <a href="Vibration" title="Vibration">vibrations</a> (i.e., sonic detection). Frequencies capable of being heard by humans are called <a href="Audio_frequency" title="Audio frequency">audio or audible frequencies</a>, the range of which is typically considered to be between 20 <a href="Hertz" title="Hertz">Hz</a> and 20,000 Hz.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> Frequencies higher than audio are referred to as <a href="Ultrasound" title="Ultrasound">ultrasonic</a>, while frequencies below audio are referred to as <a href="Infrasound" title="Infrasound">infrasonic</a>.

The <a href="Auditory_system" title="Auditory system">auditory system</a> includes the <a href="Ear" title="Ear">outer ears</a>, which collect and filter sound waves; the <a href="Ear" title="Ear">middle ear</a>, which transforms the sound pressure (<a href="Impedance_matching" title="Impedance matching">impedance matching</a>); and the <a href="Ear" title="Ear">inner ear</a>, which produces neural signals in response to the sound. By the ascending <a href="Auditory_pathway" class="mw-redirect" title="Auditory pathway">auditory pathway</a> these are led to the <a href="Primary_auditory_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary auditory cortex">primary auditory cortex</a> within the <a href="Temporal_lobe" title="Temporal lobe">temporal lobe</a> of the human brain, from where the auditory information then goes to the <a href="Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">cerebral cortex</a> for further processing.

Sound does not usually come from a single source: in real situations, sounds from multiple sources and directions are <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/superimpose" class="extiw external" title="mwod:superimpose">superimposed</a> as they arrive at the ears. Hearing involves the computationally complex task of separating out sources of interest, identifying them and often estimating their distance and direction.<a href="#cite_note-eop_constancy-21">[21]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Touch">Touch</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Haptic_perception" title="Haptic perception">Haptic perception</a></div>The process of recognizing objects through touch is known as haptic perception. It involves a combination of <a href="Somatosensory" class="mw-redirect" title="Somatosensory">somatosensory</a> perception of patterns on the skin surface (e.g., edges, curvature, and texture) and <a href="Proprioception" title="Proprioception">proprioception</a> of hand position and conformation. People can rapidly and accurately identify three-dimensional objects by touch.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> This involves exploratory procedures, such as moving the fingers over the outer surface of the object or holding the entire object in the hand.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> Haptic perception relies on the forces experienced during touch.<a href="#cite_note-Robles-de-la-torre2001-24">[24]</a>

Professor <a href="James_J._Gibson" title="James J. Gibson">Gibson</a> defined the haptic system as "the sensibility of the individual to the world adjacent to his body by use of his body."<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> Gibson and others emphasized the close link between body movement and haptic perception, where the latter is active exploration.

The concept of haptic perception is related to the concept of <a href="Extended_physiological_proprioception" title="Extended physiological proprioception">extended physiological proprioception</a> according to which, when using a tool such as a stick, perceptual experience is transparently transferred to the end of the tool.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taste">Taste</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Taste" title="Taste">Taste</a></div>Taste (formally known as gustation) is the ability to perceive the <a href="Flavor_(taste)" class="mw-redirect" title="Flavor (taste)">flavor</a> of substances, including, but not limited to, <a href="Food" title="Food">food</a>. Humans receive tastes through sensory organs concentrated on the upper surface of the <a href="Tongue" title="Tongue">tongue</a>, called <a href="Taste_bud" title="Taste bud">taste buds</a> or gustatory calyculi.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> The human tongue has 100 to 150 taste receptor cells on each of its roughly-ten thousand taste buds.<a href="#cite_note-DeVereCalvert2010_39-27">[27]</a>

Traditionally, there have been four primary tastes: <a href="Sweetness" title="Sweetness">sweetness</a>, <a href="Bitter_(taste)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bitter (taste)">bitterness</a>, <a href="Sourness" class="mw-redirect" title="Sourness">sourness</a>, and <a href="Saltiness" class="mw-redirect" title="Saltiness">saltiness</a>. The recognition and awareness of <a href="Umami" title="Umami">umami</a>, which is considered the fifth primary taste, is a relatively recent development in <a href="Western_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="Western cuisine">Western cuisine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Other tastes can be mimicked by combining these basic tastes,<a href="#cite_note-DeVereCalvert2010_39-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-SiegelAlbers2006-30">[30]</a> all of which contribute only partially to the sensation and <a href="Flavor_(taste)" class="mw-redirect" title="Flavor (taste)">flavor</a> of food in the mouth. Other factors include <a href="Odor" title="Odor">smell</a>, which is detected by the <a href="Olfactory_epithelium" title="Olfactory epithelium">olfactory epithelium</a> of the nose;<a href="#cite_note-DeVereCalvert2010_332-7">[7]</a> <a href="Texture_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Texture (food)">texture</a>, which is detected through a variety of <a href="Mechanoreceptor" title="Mechanoreceptor">mechanoreceptors</a>, muscle nerves, etc.;<a href="#cite_note-SiegelAlbers2006-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> and temperature, which is detected by <a href="Thermoreceptor" title="Thermoreceptor">thermoreceptors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-SiegelAlbers2006-30">[30]</a> All basic tastes are classified as either <a href="Reward_system" title="Reward system">appetitive</a> or <a href="Aversives" title="Aversives">aversive</a>, depending upon whether the things they sense are harmful or beneficial.<a href="#cite_note-aa-32">[32]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Smell">Smell</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Olfaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfaction">Olfaction</a></div>

Smell is the process of absorbing molecules through <a href="Olfactory_system" title="Olfactory system">olfactory organs</a>, which are absorbed by humans through the <a href="Nose" title="Nose">nose</a>. These molecules diffuse through a thick layer of <a href="Mucus" title="Mucus">mucus</a>; come into contact with one of thousands of <a href="Cilium" title="Cilium">cilia</a> that are projected from sensory neurons; and are then absorbed into a receptor (one of 347 or so).<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> It is this process that causes humans to understand the concept of smell from a physical standpoint.

Smell is also a very interactive sense as scientists have begun to observe that olfaction comes into contact with the other sense in unexpected ways.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> It is also the most primal of the senses, as it is known to be the first indicator of safety or danger, therefore being the sense that drives the most basic of human survival skills. As such, it can be a catalyst for human behavior on a <a href="Subconscious" title="Subconscious">subconscious</a> and <a href="Instinct" title="Instinct">instinctive</a> level.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social">Social</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Social_perception" title="Social perception">Social perception</a></div><a href="Social_perception" title="Social perception">Social perception</a> is the part of perception that allows people to understand the individuals and groups of their social world. Thus, it is an element of <a href="Social_cognition" title="Social cognition">social cognition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Speech">Speech</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Speech_perception" title="Speech perception">Speech perception</a></div>

Speech perception is the process by which <a href="Spoken_language" title="Spoken language">spoken language</a> is heard, interpreted and understood. Research in this field seeks to understand how human listeners recognize the sound of speech (or <a href="Phonetics" title="Phonetics">phonetics</a>) and use such information to understand spoken language.

Listeners manage to perceive words across a wide range of conditions, as the sound of a word can vary widely according to words that surround it and the <a href="Tempo" title="Tempo">tempo</a> of the speech, as well as the physical characteristics, <a href="Accent_(dialect)" class="mw-redirect" title="Accent (dialect)">accent</a>, <a href="Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tone</a>, and mood of the speaker. <a href="Reverberation" title="Reverberation">Reverberation</a>, signifying the persistence of sound after the sound is produced, can also have a considerable impact on perception. Experiments have shown that people automatically compensate for this effect when hearing speech.<a href="#cite_note-eop_constancy-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Watkins2010-37">[37]</a>

The process of perceiving speech begins at the level of the sound within the auditory signal and the process of <a href="Hearing_(sense)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hearing (sense)">audition</a>. The initial auditory signal is compared with visual information—primarily lip movement—to extract acoustic cues and phonetic information. It is possible other sensory modalities are integrated at this stage as well.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> This speech information can then be used for higher-level language processes, such as <a href="Word_recognition" title="Word recognition">word recognition</a>.

Speech perception is not necessarily uni-directional. Higher-level language processes connected with <a href="Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a>, <a href="Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a>, and/or <a href="Semantics" title="Semantics">semantics</a> may also interact with basic speech perception processes to aid in recognition of speech sounds.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> It may be the case that it is not necessary (maybe not even possible) for a listener to recognize <a href="Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a> before recognizing higher units, such as words. In an experiment, professor Richard M. Warren replaced one phoneme of a word with a cough-like sound. His subjects restored the missing speech sound perceptually without any difficulty. Moreover, they were not able to accurately identify which phoneme had even been disturbed.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Faces">Faces</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Face_perception" title="Face perception">Face perception</a></div>Facial perception refers to cognitive processes specialized in handling <a href="Human_faces" class="mw-redirect" title="Human faces">human faces</a> (including perceiving the identity of an individual) and facial expressions (such as emotional cues.)

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Social_touch">Social touch</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Somatosensory_system#Neural_processing_of_social_touch" title="Somatosensory system">Somatosensory system § Neural processing of social touch</a></div>The somatosensory cortex is a part of the brain that receives and encodes sensory information from receptors of the entire body.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a>

<a href="Affective" class="mw-redirect" title="Affective">Affective touch</a> is a type of sensory information that elicits an emotional reaction and is usually social in nature. Such information is actually coded differently than other sensory information. Though the intensity of affective touch is still encoded in the primary somatosensory cortex, the feeling of pleasantness associated with affective touch is activated more in the <a href="Anterior_cingulate_cortex" title="Anterior cingulate cortex">anterior cingulate cortex</a>. Increased <a href="Blood-oxygen-level-dependent_imaging" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood-oxygen-level-dependent imaging">blood oxygen level-dependent</a> (BOLD) contrast imaging, identified during <a href="Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Functional magnetic resonance imaging">functional magnetic resonance imaging</a> (fMRI), shows that signals in the anterior cingulate cortex, as well as the <a href="Prefrontal_cortex" title="Prefrontal cortex">prefrontal cortex</a>, are highly correlated with pleasantness scores of affective touch. Inhibitory <a href="Transcranial_magnetic_stimulation" title="Transcranial magnetic stimulation">transcranial magnetic stimulation</a> (TMS) of the primary somatosensory cortex inhibits the perception of affective touch intensity, but not affective touch pleasantness. Therefore, the S1 is not directly involved in processing socially affective touch pleasantness, but still plays a role in discriminating touch location and intensity.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Multi-modal_perception">Multi-modal perception</h3></div>

<a href="Multi-modal_perception" class="mw-redirect" title="Multi-modal perception">Multi-modal perception</a> refers to concurrent stimulation in more than one sensory modality and the effect such has on the perception of events and objects in the world.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Time_(chronoception)">Time (chronoception)</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Time_perception" title="Time perception">time perception</a></div>

<a href="Time_perception" title="Time perception">Chronoception</a> refers to how the passage of <a href="Time" title="Time">time</a> is perceived and experienced. Although the <a href="Time_perception" title="Time perception">sense of time</a> is not associated with a specific <a href="Sensory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory system">sensory system</a>, the work of <a href="Psychologist" title="Psychologist">psychologists</a> and <a href="Neuroscientist" title="Neuroscientist">neuroscientists</a> indicates that human brains do have a system governing the perception of time,<a href="#cite_note-Rao_2001-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> composed of a highly distributed system involving the <a href="Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">cerebral cortex</a>, <a href="Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</a>, and <a href="Basal_ganglia" title="Basal ganglia">basal ganglia</a>. One particular component of the brain, the <a href="Suprachiasmatic_nucleus" title="Suprachiasmatic nucleus">suprachiasmatic nucleus</a>, is responsible for the <a href="Circadian_rhythm" title="Circadian rhythm">circadian rhythm</a> (commonly known as one's "internal clock"), while other cell clusters appear to be capable of shorter-range timekeeping, known as an <a href="Ultradian" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultradian">ultradian</a> rhythm.

One or more <a href="Dopaminergic_pathways" title="Dopaminergic pathways">dopaminergic pathways</a> in the <a href="Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a> appear to have a strong modulatory influence on <a href="Mental_chronometry" title="Mental chronometry">mental chronometry</a>, particularly <a href="Interval_(time)" class="mw-redirect" title="Interval (time)">interval timing.</a><a href="#cite_note-Amph-DA_reaction_time-46">[46]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Agency">Agency</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Sense_of_agency" title="Sense of agency">Sense of agency</a></div>

Sense of agency refers to the subjective feeling of having chosen a particular action. Some conditions, such as <a href="Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a>, can cause a loss of this sense, which may lead a person into delusions, such as feeling like a machine or like an outside source is controlling them. An opposite extreme can also occur, where people experience everything in their environment as though they had decided that it would happen.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a>

Even in non-<a href="Pathology" title="Pathology">pathological</a> cases, there is a measurable difference between the making of a decision and the feeling of agency. Through methods such as <a href="Neuroscience_of_free_will#Libet_experiment" title="Neuroscience of free will">the Libet experiment</a>, a gap of half a second or more can be detected from the time when there are detectable neurological signs of a decision having been made to the time when the subject actually becomes conscious of the decision.

There are also experiments in which an illusion of agency is induced in psychologically normal subjects. In 1999, psychologists <a href="Daniel_Wegner" title="Daniel Wegner">Wegner</a> and Wheatley gave subjects instructions to move a mouse around a scene and point to an image about once every thirty seconds. However, a second person—acting as a test subject but actually a confederate—had their hand on the mouse at the same time, and controlled some of the movement. Experimenters were able to arrange for subjects to perceive certain "forced stops" as if they were their own choice.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Familiarity">Familiarity</h4></div>

<a href="Recognition_memory" title="Recognition memory">Recognition memory</a> is sometimes divided into two functions by neuroscientists: familiarity and recollection.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> A strong sense of familiarity can occur without any recollection, for example in cases of <a href="Deja_vu" class="mw-redirect" title="Deja vu">deja vu</a>.

The <a href="Temporal_lobe" title="Temporal lobe">temporal lobe</a> (specifically the <a href="Perirhinal_cortex" title="Perirhinal cortex">perirhinal cortex</a>) responds differently to stimuli that feel novel compared to stimuli that feel familiar. <a href="Firing_rate_(cells)" class="mw-redirect" title="Firing rate (cells)">Firing rates</a> in the perirhinal cortex are connected with the sense of familiarity in humans and other mammals. In tests, stimulating this area at 10–15 Hz caused animals to treat even novel images as familiar, and stimulation at 30–40 Hz caused novel images to be partially treated as familiar.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> In particular, stimulation at 30–40 Hz led to animals looking at a familiar image for longer periods, as they would for an unfamiliar one, though it did not lead to the same exploration behavior normally associated with novelty.

Recent studies on <a href="Lesion" title="Lesion">lesions</a> in the area concluded that rats with a damaged perirhinal cortex were still more interested in exploring when novel objects were present, but seemed unable to tell novel objects from familiar ones—they examined both equally. Thus, other brain regions are involved with noticing unfamiliarity, while the perirhinal cortex is needed to associate the feeling with a specific source.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sexual_stimulation">Sexual stimulation</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Sexual_stimulation" title="Sexual stimulation">Sexual stimulation</a></div>

<a href="Sexual_stimulation" title="Sexual stimulation">Sexual stimulation</a> is any <a href="Stimulation" title="Stimulation">stimulus</a> (including bodily contact) that leads to, enhances, and maintains <a href="Sexual_arousal" title="Sexual arousal">sexual arousal</a>, possibly even leading to <a href="Orgasm" title="Orgasm">orgasm</a>. Distinct from the general sense of <a href="#Touch">touch</a>, sexual stimulation is strongly tied to <a href="Hormone" title="Hormone">hormonal activity</a> and chemical triggers in the body. Although sexual arousal may arise without <a href="Physical_stimulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical stimulation">physical stimulation</a>, achieving orgasm usually requires physical sexual stimulation (stimulation of the Krause-Finger <a href="Bulboid_corpuscle" title="Bulboid corpuscle">corpuscles</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> found in erogenous zones of the body.)

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_senses">Other senses</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Sense" title="Sense">Sense</a></div>Other senses enable perception of <a href="Balance_(ability)" title="Balance (ability)">body balance</a> (vestibular sense<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a>); <a href="Acceleration" title="Acceleration">acceleration</a>, including <a href="Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a>; <a href="Proprioception" title="Proprioception">position of body parts</a> (proprioception sense<a href="#cite_note-3DVAE-1">[1]</a>). They can also enable perception of internal senses (interoception sense<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a>), such as temperature, pain, <a href="Suffocation" class="mw-redirect" title="Suffocation">suffocation</a>, <a href="Gag_Reflex" class="mw-redirect" title="Gag Reflex">gag reflex</a>, <a href="Abdominal_distension" title="Abdominal distension">abdominal distension</a>, fullness of <a href="Rectum" title="Rectum">rectum</a> and <a href="Urinary_bladder" class="mw-redirect" title="Urinary bladder">urinary bladder</a>, and sensations felt in the <a href="Throat" title="Throat">throat</a> and <a href="Lung" title="Lung">lungs</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reality">Reality</h2></div>

In the case of visual perception, some people can see the percept shift in their <a href="Mind's_eye" class="mw-redirect" title="Mind's eye">mind's eye</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wettlaufer2003-56">[56]</a> Others, who are not <a href="Picture_thinking" class="mw-redirect" title="Picture thinking">picture thinkers</a>, may not necessarily perceive the 'shape-shifting' as their world changes. This <a href="Esemplastic" title="Esemplastic">esemplastic</a> nature has been demonstrated by an experiment that showed that <a href="Ambiguous_image" title="Ambiguous image">ambiguous images</a> have multiple interpretations on the perceptual level.

The confusing ambiguity of perception is exploited in human technologies such as <a href="Camouflage" title="Camouflage">camouflage</a> and biological <a href="Mimicry" title="Mimicry">mimicry</a>. For example, the wings of <a href="European_peacock" class="mw-redirect" title="European peacock">European peacock butterflies</a> bear <a href="Eyespot_(mimicry)" title="Eyespot (mimicry)">eyespots</a> that birds respond to as though they were the eyes of a dangerous predator.

There is also evidence that the brain in some ways operates on a slight "delay" in order to allow nerve impulses from distant parts of the body to be integrated into simultaneous signals.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a>

Perception is one of the oldest fields in psychology. The oldest <a href="Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">quantitative</a> laws in psychology are <a href="Weber-Fechner_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Weber-Fechner law">Weber's law</a>, which states that the smallest noticeable difference in stimulus intensity is proportional to the intensity of the reference; and <a href="Weber-Fechner_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Weber-Fechner law">Fechner's law</a>, which quantifies the relationship between the intensity of the physical stimulus and its perceptual counterpart (e.g., testing how much darker a computer screen can get before the viewer actually notices). The study of perception gave rise to the <a href="Gestalt_psychology" title="Gestalt psychology">Gestalt School of Psychology</a>, with an emphasis on a <a href="Holism" title="Holism">holistic</a> approach.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physiology">Physiology</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Sensory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory system">Sensory system</a></div>A sensory system is a part of the nervous system responsible for processing <a href="Sense" title="Sense">sensory</a> information. A sensory system consists of <a href="Sensory_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory receptor">sensory receptors</a>, <a href="Neural_pathway" title="Neural pathway">neural pathways</a>, and parts of the brain involved in sensory perception. Commonly recognized sensory systems are those for <a href="Vision_(sense)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vision (sense)">vision</a>, <a href="Hearing_(sense)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hearing (sense)">hearing</a>, <a href="Somatic_sensation" class="mw-redirect" title="Somatic sensation">somatic sensation</a> (touch), <a href="Taste" title="Taste">taste</a> and <a href="Olfaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfaction">olfaction</a> (smell), as listed above. It has been suggested that the immune system is an overlooked sensory modality.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> In short, senses are <a href="Transducers" class="mw-redirect" title="Transducers">transducers</a> from the physical world to the realm of the mind.

The <a href="Receptive_field" title="Receptive field">receptive field</a> is the specific part of the world to which a receptor organ and receptor cells respond. For instance, the part of the world an eye can see, is its receptive field; the light that each <a href="Rod_cell" title="Rod cell">rod</a> or <a href="Cone_cell" title="Cone cell">cone</a> can see, is its receptive field.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Receptive fields have been identified for the <a href="Visual_system" title="Visual system">visual system</a>, <a href="Auditory_system" title="Auditory system">auditory system</a> and <a href="Somatosensory_system" title="Somatosensory system">somatosensory system</a>, so far. Research attention is currently focused not only on external perception processes, but also to "<a href="Interoception" title="Interoception">interoception</a>", considered as the process of receiving, accessing and appraising internal bodily signals. Maintaining desired physiological states is critical for an organism's well-being and survival. Interoception is an iterative process, requiring the interplay between perception of body states and awareness of these states to generate proper self-regulation. Afferent sensory signals continuously interact with higher order cognitive representations of goals, history, and environment, shaping emotional experience and motivating regulatory behavior.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Features">Features</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constancy">Constancy</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Subjective_constancy" title="Subjective constancy">Subjective constancy</a></div>Perceptual constancy is the ability of perceptual systems to recognize the same object from widely varying sensory inputs.<a href="#cite_note-Bernstein20102-5">[5]</a>: 118–120 <a href="#cite_note-AtkinsonAtkinson1990-61">[61]</a> For example, individual people can be recognized from views, such as frontal and profile, which form very different shapes on the retina. A coin looked at face-on makes a circular image on the retina, but when held at angle it makes an elliptical image.<a href="#cite_note-eop_constancy-21">[21]</a> In normal perception these are recognized as a single three-dimensional object. Without this correction process, an animal approaching from the distance would appear to gain in size.<a href="#cite_note-Sonderegger1998-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-enc_constancy-63">[63]</a> One kind of perceptual constancy is <a href="Color_constancy" title="Color constancy">color constancy</a>: for example, a white piece of paper can be recognized as such under different colors and intensities of light.<a href="#cite_note-enc_constancy-63">[63]</a> Another example is roughness constancy: when a hand is drawn quickly across a surface, the touch nerves are stimulated more intensely. The brain compensates for this, so the speed of contact does not affect the perceived roughness.<a href="#cite_note-enc_constancy-63">[63]</a> Other constancies include melody, odor, brightness and words.<a href="#cite_note-Roeckelein2006-64">[64]</a> These constancies are not always total, but the variation in the percept is much less than the variation in the physical stimulus.<a href="#cite_note-enc_constancy-63">[63]</a> The perceptual systems of the brain achieve perceptual constancy in a variety of ways, each specialized for the kind of information being processed,<a href="#cite_note-Yantis2001-65">[65]</a> with <a href="Phonemic_restoration_effect" title="Phonemic restoration effect">phonemic restoration</a> as a notable example from hearing.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grouping_(Gestalt)">Grouping (Gestalt)</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Principles_of_grouping" title="Principles of grouping">Principles of grouping</a></div>

The principles of grouping (or Gestalt laws of grouping) are a set of principles in <a href="Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, first proposed by <a href="Gestalt_psychology" title="Gestalt psychology">Gestalt psychologists</a>, to explain how humans naturally perceive objects with patterns and objects. Gestalt psychologists argued that these principles exist because the mind has an innate disposition to <a href="Perceive" class="mw-redirect" title="Perceive">perceive</a> patterns in the stimulus based on certain rules. These principles are <a href="Principles_of_grouping" title="Principles of grouping">organized into six categories</a>:

<ol><li>Proximity: the principle of <a href="Proximity_principle" title="Proximity principle">proximity</a> states that, <a href="Ceteris_paribus" title="Ceteris paribus">all else being equal</a>, perception tends to group stimuli that are close together as part of the same object, and <a href="Stimulus_(psychology)" title="Stimulus (psychology)">stimuli</a> that are far apart as two separate objects.</li>

<li>Similarity: the principle of <a href="Similarity_(psychology)" title="Similarity (psychology)">similarity</a> states that, all else being equal, perception lends itself to seeing stimuli that physically resemble each other as part of the same object and that are different as part of a separate object. This allows for people to distinguish between adjacent and overlapping objects based on their <a href="Texture_(visual_arts)#Visual_texture" title="Texture (visual arts)">visual texture</a> and <a href="Nominalism" title="Nominalism">resemblance</a>.</li>

<li>Closure: the principle of <a href="Closure_(psychology)" title="Closure (psychology)">closure</a> refers to the mind's tendency to see complete figures or forms even if a picture is incomplete, partially hidden by other objects, or if part of the information needed to make a complete picture in our minds is missing. For example, if part of a shape's border is missing people still tend to see the shape as completely enclosed by the border and ignore the gaps.</li>

<li>Good Continuation: the principle of <a href="Principles_of_grouping#Good_continuation" title="Principles of grouping">good continuation</a> makes sense of stimuli that overlap: when there is an intersection between two or more objects, people tend to perceive each as a single uninterrupted object.</li>

<li>Common Fate: the principle of <a href="Principles_of_grouping#Common_fate" title="Principles of grouping">common fate</a> groups stimuli together on the basis of their movement. When visual elements are seen moving in the same direction at the same rate, perception associates the movement as part of the same stimulus. This allows people to make out moving objects even when other details, such as color or outline, are obscured.</li>

<li>The principle of <a href="Principles_of_grouping#Good_form" title="Principles of grouping">good form</a> refers to the tendency to group together forms of similar shape, pattern, <a href="Color" title="Color">color</a>, etc.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a></li></ol>

Later research has identified additional grouping principles.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contrast_effects">Contrast effects</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Contrast_effect" title="Contrast effect">Contrast effect</a></div>A common finding across many different kinds of perception is that the perceived qualities of an object can be affected by the qualities of context. If one object is extreme on some dimension, then neighboring objects are perceived as further away from that extreme.

"<a href="Contrast_effect#Types" title="Contrast effect">Simultaneous contrast effect</a>" is the term used when stimuli are presented at the same time, whereas <a href="Successive_contrast" class="mw-redirect" title="Successive contrast">successive contrast</a> applies when stimuli are presented one after another.<a href="#cite_note-Corsini2002-71">[71]</a>

The contrast effect was noted by the 17th Century philosopher <a href="John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, who observed that lukewarm water can feel hot or cold depending on whether the hand touching it was previously in hot or cold water.<a href="#cite_note-Kushner2008-72">[72]</a> In the early 20th Century, <a href="Wilhelm_Wundt" title="Wilhelm Wundt">Wilhelm Wundt</a> identified contrast as a fundamental principle of perception, and since then the effect has been confirmed in many different areas.<a href="#cite_note-Kushner2008-72">[72]</a> These effects shape not only visual qualities like color and brightness, but other kinds of perception, including how heavy an object feels.<a href="#cite_note-Plous1993-73">[73]</a> One experiment found that thinking of the name "Hitler" led to subjects rating a person as more hostile.<a href="#cite_note-Moskowitz2005-74">[74]</a> Whether a piece of music is perceived as good or bad can depend on whether the music heard before it was pleasant or unpleasant.<a href="#cite_note-Popper2010-75">[75]</a> For the effect to work, the objects being compared need to be similar to each other: a television reporter can seem smaller when interviewing a tall basketball player, but not when standing next to a tall building.<a href="#cite_note-Plous1993-73">[73]</a> In the brain, brightness contrast exerts effects on both neuronal <a href="Firing_rate_(cells)" class="mw-redirect" title="Firing rate (cells)">firing rates</a> and <a href="Neuronal_synchronization" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuronal synchronization">neuronal synchrony</a>.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theories">Theories</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Perception_as_direct_perception_(Gibson)">Perception as direct perception (Gibson)</h3></div>

<a href="Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitive theories</a> of perception assume there is a <a href="Poverty_of_the_stimulus" title="Poverty of the stimulus">poverty of the stimulus</a>. This is the claim that <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sensation" class="extiw external" title="wikt:sensation">sensations</a>, by themselves, are unable to provide a unique description of the world.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Sensations require 'enriching', which is the role of the <a href="Mental_model" title="Mental model">mental model</a>.

The <a href="Ecological_psychology" title="Ecological psychology">perceptual ecology</a> approach was introduced by professor <a href="James_J._Gibson" title="James J. Gibson">James J. Gibson</a>, who rejected the assumption of a <a href="Poverty_of_stimulus" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty of stimulus">poverty of stimulus</a> and the idea that perception is based upon sensations. Instead, Gibson investigated what information is actually presented to the perceptual systems. His theory "assumes the existence of stable, unbounded, and permanent stimulus-information in the <a href="Ambient_optic_array" title="Ambient optic array">ambient optic array</a>. And it supposes that the visual system can explore and detect this information. The theory is information-based, not sensation-based."<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> He and the psychologists who work within this <a href="Paradigm" title="Paradigm">paradigm</a> detailed how the world could be specified to a mobile, exploring organism via the lawful projection of information about the world into energy arrays.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> "Specification" would be a 1:1 mapping of some aspect of the world into a perceptual array. Given such a mapping, no enrichment is required and perception is <a href="Direct_perception" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct perception">direct</a>.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Perception-in-action">Perception-in-action</h3></div>

From Gibson's early work derived an ecological understanding of perception known as perception-in-action, which argues that perception is a requisite property of animate action. It posits that, without perception, action would be unguided, and without action, perception would serve no purpose. Animate actions require both perception and motion, which can be described as "two sides of the same coin, the coin is action." Gibson works from the assumption that singular entities, which he calls invariants, already exist in the real world and that all that the perception process does is home in upon them.

The <a href="Constructive_perception" title="Constructive perception">constructivist view</a>, held by such philosophers as <a href="Ernst_von_Glasersfeld" title="Ernst von Glasersfeld">Ernst von Glasersfeld</a>, regards the continual adjustment of perception and action to the external input as precisely what constitutes the "entity," which is therefore far from being invariant.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> Glasersfeld considers an invariant as a target to be homed in upon, and a pragmatic necessity to allow an initial measure of understanding to be established prior to the updating that a statement aims to achieve. The invariant does not, and need not, represent an actuality. Glasersfeld describes it as extremely unlikely that what is desired or <a href="Fear_processing_in_the_brain" title="Fear processing in the brain">feared</a> by an organism will never suffer change as time goes on. This <a href="Social_constructionist" class="mw-redirect" title="Social constructionist">social constructionist</a> theory thus allows for a needful evolutionary adjustment.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a>

A mathematical theory of perception-in-action has been devised and investigated in many forms of controlled movement, and has been described in many different species of organism using the <a href="General_Tau_Theory" class="mw-redirect" title="General Tau Theory">General Tau Theory</a>. According to this theory, "tau information", or time-to-goal information is the fundamental percept in perception.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolutionary_psychology">Evolutionary psychology</h3></div>

Many philosophers, such as <a href="Jerry_Fodor" title="Jerry Fodor">Jerry Fodor</a>, write that the purpose of perception is knowledge. However, <a href="Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">evolutionary psychologists</a> hold that the primary purpose of perception is to guide action.<a href="#cite_note-Gaulin_4-83">[83]</a> They give the example of <a href="Depth_perception" title="Depth perception">depth perception</a>, which seems to have evolved not to aid in knowing the distances to other objects but rather to aid movement.<a href="#cite_note-Gaulin_4-83">[83]</a> Evolutionary psychologists argue that animals ranging from <a href="Fiddler_crab" title="Fiddler crab">fiddler crabs</a> to humans use eyesight for <a href="Collision_avoidance_in_transportation" title="Collision avoidance in transportation">collision avoidance</a>, suggesting that vision is basically for directing action, not providing knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-Gaulin_4-83">[83]</a> <a href="Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychologists</a> showed that perception systems evolved along the specifics of animals' activities. This explains why bats and worms can perceive different frequency of auditory and visual systems than, for example, humans.

Building and maintaining sense organs is <a href="Metabolically" class="mw-redirect" title="Metabolically">metabolically</a> expensive. More than half the brain is devoted to processing sensory information, and the brain itself consumes roughly one-fourth of one's metabolic resources. Thus, such organs evolve only when they provide exceptional benefits to an organism's fitness.<a href="#cite_note-Gaulin_4-83">[83]</a>

Scientists who study perception and sensation have long understood the human senses as adaptations.<a href="#cite_note-Gaulin_4-83">[83]</a> Depth perception consists of processing over half a dozen visual cues, each of which is based on a regularity of the physical world.<a href="#cite_note-Gaulin_4-83">[83]</a> Vision evolved to respond to the narrow range of electromagnetic energy that is plentiful and that does not pass through objects.<a href="#cite_note-Gaulin_4-83">[83]</a> Sound waves provide useful information about the sources of and distances to objects, with larger animals making and hearing lower-frequency sounds and smaller animals making and hearing higher-frequency sounds.<a href="#cite_note-Gaulin_4-83">[83]</a> Taste and smell respond to chemicals in the environment that were significant for fitness in the environment of evolutionary adaptedness.<a href="#cite_note-Gaulin_4-83">[83]</a> The sense of touch is actually many senses, including pressure, heat, cold, tickle, and pain.<a href="#cite_note-Gaulin_4-83">[83]</a> Pain, while unpleasant, is adaptive.<a href="#cite_note-Gaulin_4-83">[83]</a> An important adaptation for senses is range shifting, by which the organism becomes temporarily more or less sensitive to sensation.<a href="#cite_note-Gaulin_4-83">[83]</a> For example, one's eyes automatically adjust to dim or bright ambient light.<a href="#cite_note-Gaulin_4-83">[83]</a> Sensory abilities of different organisms often co-evolve, as is the case with the hearing of echolocating bats and that of the moths that have evolved to respond to the sounds that the bats make.<a href="#cite_note-Gaulin_4-83">[83]</a>

Evolutionary psychologists claim that perception demonstrates the principle of modularity, with specialized mechanisms handling particular perception tasks.<a href="#cite_note-Gaulin_4-83">[83]</a> For example, people with damage to a particular part of the brain are not able to recognize faces (<a href="Prosopagnosia" title="Prosopagnosia">prosopagnosia</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Gaulin_4-83">[83]</a> Evolutionary psychology suggests that this indicates a so-called face-reading module.<a href="#cite_note-Gaulin_4-83">[83]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Closed-loop_perception">Closed-loop perception</h3></div>

The theory of <a href="Closed-loop_transfer_function" title="Closed-loop transfer function">closed-loop perception</a> proposes dynamic motor-sensory closed-loop process in which information flows through the environment and the brain in continuous loops.<a href="#cite_note-Dewey1-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-Friston1-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tishby1-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-AhiAssa1-87">[87]</a> Closed-loop perception appears consistent with anatomy and with the fact that perception is typically an incremental process. Repeated encounters with an object, whether conscious or not, enable an animal to refine its impressions of that object. This can be achieved more easily with a circular closed-loop system than with a linear open-loop one. Closed-loop perception can explain many of the phenomena that open-loop perception struggles to account for. This is largely because closed-loop perception considers motion to be an integral part of perception, and not an interfering component that must be corrected for. Furthermore, an environment perceived via sensor motion, and not despite sensor motion, need not be further stabilized by internal processes.<a href="#cite_note-AhiAssa1-87">[87]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Feature_integration_theory">Feature integration theory</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Feature_integration_theory" title="Feature integration theory">Feature integration theory</a></div>

<a href="Anne_Treisman" title="Anne Treisman">Anne Treisman</a>'s feature integration theory (FIT) attempts to explain how characteristics of a stimulus such as physical location in space, motion, color, and shape are merged to form one percept despite each of these characteristics activating separate areas of the cortex. FIT explains this through a two part system of perception involving the preattentive and focused attention stages.<a href="#cite_note-:0-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-92">[92]</a>

The preattentive stage of perception is largely unconscious, and analyzes an object by breaking it down into its basic features, such as the specific color, geometric shape, motion, depth, individual lines, and many others.<a href="#cite_note-:0-88">[88]</a> Studies have shown that, when small groups of objects with different features (e.g., red triangle, blue circle) are briefly flashed in front of human participants, many individuals later report seeing shapes made up of the combined features of two different stimuli, thereby referred to as <a href="Illusory_conjunctions" title="Illusory conjunctions">illusory conjunctions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-91">[91]</a>

The unconnected features described in the preattentive stage are combined into the objects one normally sees during the focused attention stage.<a href="#cite_note-:0-88">[88]</a> The focused attention stage is based heavily around the idea of attention in perception and 'binds' the features together onto specific objects at specific spatial locations (see the <a href="Binding_problem" title="Binding problem">binding problem</a>).<a href="#cite_note-:0-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-92">[92]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shared_Intentionality_theory">Shared Intentionality theory</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Shared_intentionality" title="Shared intentionality">Shared intentionality</a></div>

A fundamentally different approach to understanding the perception of objects relies upon the essential role of <a href="Shared_intentionality" title="Shared intentionality">Shared intentionality</a>.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> Cognitive psychologist professor <a href="Michael_Tomasello" title="Michael Tomasello">Michael Tomasello</a> hypothesized that social bonds between children and caregivers would gradually increase through the essential motive force of shared intentionality beginning from birth.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> The notion of shared intentionality, introduced by Michael Tomasello, was developed by later researchers, who tended to explain this collaborative interaction from different perspectives, e.g., <a href="Psychophysiology" title="Psychophysiology">psychophysiology</a>,<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> and neurobiology.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> The <a href="Shared_intentionality" title="Shared intentionality">Shared intentionality</a> approach considers perception occurrence at an earlier stage of organisms' development than other theories, even before the emergence of <a href="Intentionality" title="Intentionality">Intentionality</a>. Because many theories build their knowledge about perception based on its main features of the organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information to represent the holistic picture of the environment, <a href="Intentionality" title="Intentionality">Intentionality</a> is the central issue in perception development. Nowadays, only one hypothesis attempts to explain <a href="Shared_intentionality" title="Shared intentionality">Shared intentionality</a> in all its integral complexity from the level of interpersonal dynamics to interaction at the neuronal level. Introduced by Latvian professor Igor Val Danilov, the hypothesis of neurobiological processes occurring during Shared intentionality<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> highlights that, at the beginning of cognition, very young organisms cannot distinguish relevant sensory stimuli independently. Because the environment is the cacophony of stimuli (electromagnetic waves, chemical interactions, and pressure fluctuations), their sensation is too limited by the noise to solve the cue problem. The relevant stimulus cannot overcome the noise magnitude if it passes through the senses. Therefore, <a href="Intentionality" title="Intentionality">Intentionality</a> is a difficult problem for them since it needs the representation of the environment already categorized into objects (see also <a href="Binding_problem" title="Binding problem">binding problem</a>). The perception of objects is also problematic since it cannot appear without Intentionality. From the perspective of this hypothesis, <a href="Shared_intentionality" title="Shared intentionality">Shared intentionality</a> is collaborative interactions in which participants share the essential sensory stimulus of the actual cognitive problem. This social bond enables ecological training of the young immature organism, starting at the reflexes stage of development, for processing the organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information in developing perception.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> From this account perception emerges due to <a href="Shared_intentionality" title="Shared intentionality">Shared intentionality</a> in the embryonic stage of development, i.e., even before birth.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_theories_of_perception">Other theories of perception</h3></div>

<ul><li><a href="Enactivism" title="Enactivism">Enactivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Interactive_activation_and_competition_networks" title="Interactive activation and competition networks">The Interactive Activation and Competition Model</a></li>

<li><a href="Recognition-by-components_theory" title="Recognition-by-components theory">Recognition-By-Components Theory</a> (<a href="Irving_Biederman" title="Irving Biederman">Irving Biederman</a>)</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects_on_perception">Effects on perception</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effect_of_experience">Effect of experience</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Perceptual_learning" title="Perceptual learning">Perceptual learning</a></div>With experience, <a href="Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a> can learn to make finer perceptual distinctions, and learn new kinds of categorization. Wine-tasting, the reading of X-ray images and music appreciation are applications of this process in the <a href="Human" title="Human">human</a> sphere. <a href="Research" title="Research">Research</a> has focused on the relation of this to other kinds of <a href="Learning" title="Learning">learning</a>, and whether it takes place in peripheral <a href="Sensory_perception" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory perception">sensory</a> systems or in the brain's processing of sense information.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> <a href="Empirical" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical">Empirical</a> <a href="Research" title="Research">research</a> show that specific practices (such as <a href="Yoga" title="Yoga">yoga</a>, <a href="Mindfulness" title="Mindfulness">mindfulness</a>, <a href="Tai_chi" title="Tai chi">Tai Chi</a>, <a href="Meditation" title="Meditation">meditation</a>, Daoshi and other mind-body disciplines) can modify human perceptual modality. Specifically, these practices enable perception skills to switch from the external (exteroceptive field) towards a higher ability to focus on internal signals (<a href="Proprioception" title="Proprioception">proprioception</a>). Also, when asked to provide verticality judgments, highly self-transcendent <a href="Yoga" title="Yoga">yoga</a> practitioners were significantly less influenced by a misleading visual context. Increasing self-transcendence may enable yoga practitioners to optimize verticality judgment tasks by relying more on internal (vestibular and proprioceptive) signals coming from their own body, rather than on exteroceptive, visual cues.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a>

Past actions and events that transpire right before an encounter or any form of stimulation have a strong degree of influence on how sensory stimuli are processed and perceived. On a basic level, the information our senses receive is often ambiguous and incomplete. However, they are grouped together in order for us to be able to understand the physical world around us. But it is these various forms of stimulation, combined with our previous knowledge and experience that allows us to create our overall perception. For example, when engaging in conversation, we attempt to understand their message and words by not only paying attention to what we hear through our ears but also from the previous shapes we have seen our mouths make. Another example would be if we had a similar topic come up in another conversation, we would use our previous knowledge to guess the direction the conversation is headed in.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effect_of_motivation_and_expectation">Effect of motivation and expectation</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Set_(psychology)" title="Set (psychology)">Set (psychology)</a></div>A perceptual set (also called perceptual expectancy or simply set) is a predisposition to perceive things in a certain way.<a href="#cite_note-Weiten2008-105">[105]</a> It is an example of how perception can be shaped by "top-down" processes such as drives and expectations.<a href="#cite_note-CoonMitterer2008-106">[106]</a> Perceptual sets occur in all the different senses.<a href="#cite_note-Sonderegger1998-62">[62]</a> They can be long term, such as a special sensitivity to hearing one's own name in a crowded room, or short-term, as in the ease with which hungry people notice the smell of food.<a href="#cite_note-HardyHeyes1999-107">[107]</a> A simple demonstration of the effect involved very brief presentations of non-words such as "sael". Subjects who were told to expect words about animals read it as "seal", but others who were expecting boat-related words read it as "sail".<a href="#cite_note-HardyHeyes1999-107">[107]</a>

Sets can be created by <a href="Motivation" title="Motivation">motivation</a> and so can result in people interpreting ambiguous figures so that they see what they want to see.<a href="#cite_note-CoonMitterer2008-106">[106]</a> For instance, how someone perceives what unfolds during a sports game can be biased if they strongly support one of the teams.<a href="#cite_note-BlockYuker2002-108">[108]</a> In one experiment, students were allocated to pleasant or unpleasant tasks by a computer. They were told that either a number or a letter would flash on the screen to say whether they were going to taste an orange juice drink or an unpleasant-tasting health drink. In fact, an ambiguous figure was flashed on screen, which could either be read as the letter B or the number 13. When the letters were associated with the pleasant task, subjects were more likely to perceive a letter B, and when letters were associated with the unpleasant task they tended to perceive a number 13.<a href="#cite_note-Weiten2008-105">[105]</a>

Perceptual set has been demonstrated in many social contexts. When someone has a reputation for being funny, an audience is more likely to find them amusing.<a href="#cite_note-HardyHeyes1999-107">[107]</a> Individual's perceptual sets reflect their own personality traits. For example, people with an aggressive personality are quicker to correctly identify aggressive words or situations.<a href="#cite_note-HardyHeyes1999-107">[107]</a> In general, perceptual speed as a mental ability is positively correlated with personality traits such as conscientiousness, emotional stability, and agreeableness suggesting its evolutionary role in preserving homeostasis.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a>

One classic psychological experiment showed slower reaction times and less accurate answers when a deck of <a href="Playing_cards" class="mw-redirect" title="Playing cards">playing cards</a> reversed the color of the <a href="Suit_(cards)" class="mw-redirect" title="Suit (cards)">suit</a> symbol for some cards (e.g. red spades and black hearts).<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a>

Philosopher <a href="Andy_Clark" title="Andy Clark">Andy Clark</a> explains that perception, although it occurs quickly, is not simply a bottom-up process (where minute details are put together to form larger wholes). Instead, our brains use what he calls <a href="Predictive_coding" title="Predictive coding">predictive coding</a>. It starts with very broad constraints and expectations for the state of the world, and as expectations are met, it makes more detailed predictions (errors lead to new predictions, or <a href="Learning" title="Learning">learning</a> processes). Clark says this research has various implications; not only can there be no completely "unbiased, unfiltered" perception, but this means that there is a great deal of feedback between perception and expectation (perceptual experiences often shape our beliefs, but those perceptions were based on existing beliefs).<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> Indeed, predictive coding provides an account where this type of feedback assists in stabilizing our inference-making process about the physical world, such as with perceptual constancy examples.

<a href="Embodied_cognition" title="Embodied cognition">Embodied cognition</a> challenges the idea of perception as internal representations resulting from a passive reception of (incomplete) sensory inputs coming from the outside world. According to O'Regan (1992), the major issue with this perspective is that it leaves the subjective character of perception unexplained.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> Thus, perception is understood as an active process conducted by perceiving and engaged agents (perceivers). Furthermore, perception is influenced by agents' motives and expectations, their bodily states, and the interaction between the agent's body and the environment around it.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Philosophy of perception</a></div>

Perception is an important part of the theories of many philosophers it has been famously addressed by <a href="Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Rene Descartes</a>, <a href="George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a>, and <a href="Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> to name a few. In his work The Meditations Descartes begins by doubting all of his perceptions proving his existence with the famous phrase "I think therefore I am", and then works to the conclusion that perceptions are God-given.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> George Berkely took the stance that all things that we see have a reality to them and that our perceptions were sufficient to know and understand that thing because our perceptions are capable of responding to a true reality.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> Kant almost meets the rationalists and the empiricists half way. His theory utilizes the reality of a noumenon, the actual objects that cannot be understood, and then a phenomenon which is human understanding through the mind lens interpreting that noumenon.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;">

<ul><li><a href="Action-specific_perception" title="Action-specific perception">Action-specific perception</a></li>

<li><a href="Alice_in_Wonderland_syndrome" title="Alice in Wonderland syndrome">Alice in Wonderland syndrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Apophenia" title="Apophenia">Apophenia</a></li>

<li><a href="Binding_problem" title="Binding problem">Binding Problem</a></li>

<li><a href="Embodied_cognition" title="Embodied cognition">Embodied cognition</a></li>

<li><a href="Change_blindness" title="Change blindness">Change blindness</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">Cognitive bias</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_bias" title="Cultural bias">Cultural bias</a></li>

<li><a href="Experience_model" title="Experience model">Experience model</a></li>

<li><a href="Feeling" title="Feeling">Feeling</a></li>

<li><a href="Generic_views" title="Generic views">Generic views</a></li>

<li><a href="Ideasthesia" title="Ideasthesia">Ideasthesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Introspection" title="Introspection">Introspection</a></li>

<li><a href="Model-dependent_realism" title="Model-dependent realism">Model-dependent realism</a></li>

<li><a href="Multisensory_integration" title="Multisensory integration">Multisensory integration</a></li>

<li><a href="Neural_correlates_of_consciousness" title="Neural correlates of consciousness">Neural correlates of consciousness</a></li>

<li><a href="Pareidolia" title="Pareidolia">Pareidolia</a></li>

<li><a href="Perceptual_paradox" title="Perceptual paradox">Perceptual paradox</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Philosophy of perception</a></li>

<li><a href="Proprioception" title="Proprioception">Proprioception</a></li>

<li><a href="Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li>

<li><a href="Recept" title="Recept">Recept</a></li>

<li><a href="Samj%C3%B1%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Samjñā">Samjñā</a>, the Buddhist concept of perception</li>

<li><a href="Shared_intentionality" title="Shared intentionality">Shared intentionality</a></li>

<li><a href="Simulated_reality" title="Simulated reality">Simulated reality</a></li>

<li><a href="Simulation" title="Simulation">Simulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Transsaccadic_memory" title="Transsaccadic memory">Transsaccadic memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_routine" title="Visual routine">Visual routine</a></li></ul></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div class="reflist">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("./mw/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("./mw/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("./mw/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("./mw/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sensoryhealth.org/basic/your-8-senses">"Your 8 Senses"</a>. sensoryhealth.org. Retrieved 6 May 2024.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSchacter2011" class="citation book cs1">Schacter D (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/psychology0000scha">Psychology</a>. Worth Publishers. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4292-3719-2</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Goldstein52-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstein52_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstein52_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstein52_3-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstein52_3-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstein52_3-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstein52_3-5">f</a> Goldstein (2009) pp. 5–7

</li>

<li id="cite_note-mind_perception2-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mind_perception2_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mind_perception2_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mind_perception2_4-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mind_perception2_4-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mind_perception2_4-4">e</a> <a href="Richard_Gregory" title="Richard Gregory">Gregory, Richard</a>. "Perception" in Gregory, Zangwill (1987) pp. 598–601.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Bernstein20102-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bernstein20102_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bernstein20102_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bernstein20102_5-2">c</a> <cite id="CITEREFBernstein2010" class="citation book cs1">Bernstein DA (5 March 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rd77N0KsLVkC&pg=PA123">Essentials of Psychology</a>. Cengage Learning. pp. 123–124. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-495-90693-3</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170102091148/https://books.google.com/books?id=rd77N0KsLVkC&pg=PA123">Archived</a> from the original on 2 January 2017. Retrieved 25 March 2011.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <a href="Gustav_Fechner" title="Gustav Fechner">Gustav Theodor Fechner</a>. Elemente der Psychophysik. Leipzig 1860.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-DeVereCalvert2010_332-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DeVereCalvert2010_332_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeVereCalvert2010_332_7-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFDeVereCalvert2010" class="citation book cs1">DeVere R, Calvert M (31 August 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m6WOtX2QAtwC&pg=PA39">Navigating Smell and Taste Disorders</a>. Demos Medical Publishing. pp. 33–37. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-932603-96-5</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111109163210/http://books.google.com/books?id=m6WOtX2QAtwC&pg=PA39">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2011. Retrieved 26 March 2011.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-pomerantz-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pomerantz_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pomerantz_8-1">b</a> Pomerantz, James R. (2003): "Perception: Overview". In: Lynn Nadel (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science, Vol. 3, London: Nature Publishing Group, pp. 527–537.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110510081956/http://www.learner.org/discoveringpsychology/07/e07glossary.html">"Sensation and Perception"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.learner.org/discoveringpsychology/07/e07glossary.html">the original</a> on 10 May 2011. Retrieved 24 March 2011.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-WillisCoggeshall2004-10"><a href="#cite_ref-WillisCoggeshall2004_10-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFWillisCoggeshall2004" class="citation book cs1">Willis WD, Coggeshall RE (31 January 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uqnKCewO2voC&pg=PA1">Sensory Mechanisms of the Spinal Cord: Primary afferent neurons and the spinal dorsal horn</a>. Springer. p. 1. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-306-48033-1</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111109162356/http://books.google.com/books?id=uqnKCewO2voC&pg=PA1">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2011. Retrieved 25 March 2011.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225071326/http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf">"Perception, Attribution, and, Judgment of Others"</a> (PDF). Pearson Education. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca/assets/hip/ca/hip_ca_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013613436X.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 8 March 2020.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Alan-12"><a href="#cite_ref-Alan_12-0">^</a> Alan S. & Gary J. (2011). Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others. Organizational Behaviour: Understanding and Managing Life at Work, Vol. 7.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> Sincero, Sarah Mae. 2013. "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 8 March 2020 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://explorable.com/perception">https://explorable.com/perception</a>).

</li>

<li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSmithZárate1992" class="citation journal cs1">Smith ER, Zárate MA (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1037//0033-295x.99.1.3">"Exemplar-based model of social judgment"</a>. Psychological Review. 99 (1): 3–21. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0033-295x.99.1.3">10.1037/0033-295x.99.1.3</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0033-295X">0033-295X</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGollischMeister2010" class="citation journal cs1">Gollisch T, Meister M (28 January 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3717333">"Eye Smarter than Scientists Believed: Neural Computations in Circuits of the Retina"</a>. Neuron. 65 (2): 150–164. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neuron.2009.12.009">10.1016/j.neuron.2009.12.009</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3717333">3717333</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20152123">20152123</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-pmid34093409-16"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid34093409_16-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFKimMahrooMollonYu-Wai-Man2021" class="citation journal cs1">Kim US, Mahroo OA, Mollon JD, Yu-Wai-Man P (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8175861">"Retinal Ganglion Cells-Diversity of Cell Types and Clinical Relevance"</a>. Front Neurol. 12 661938. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffneur.2021.661938">10.3389/fneur.2021.661938</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8175861">8175861</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34093409">34093409</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-pmid9144251-17"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid9144251_17-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBerryWarlandMeister1997" class="citation journal cs1">Berry MJ, Warland DK, Meister M (May 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC24692">"The structure and precision of retinal spike trains"</a>. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 94 (10): 5411–6. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997PNAS...94.5411B">1997PNAS...94.5411B</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.94.10.5411">10.1073/pnas.94.10.5411</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC24692">24692</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9144251">9144251</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-pmid31641196-18"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid31641196_18-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFTengölicsSzarkaGanczerSzabó-Meleg2019" class="citation journal cs1">Tengölics ÁJ, Szarka G, Ganczer A, Szabó-Meleg E, Nyitrai M, Kovács-Öller T, Völgyi B (October 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6806000">"Response Latency Tuning by Retinal Circuits Modulates Signal Efficiency"</a>. Sci Rep. 9 (1) 15110. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019NatSR...915110T">2019NatSR...915110T</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-019-51756-y">10.1038/s41598-019-51756-y</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6806000">6806000</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31641196">31641196</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-pmid23515395-19"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid23515395_19-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFKimGilley2013" class="citation journal cs1">Kim AE, Gilley PM (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3600774">"Neural mechanisms of rapid sensitivity to syntactic anomaly"</a>. Front Psychol. 4: 45. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2013.00045">10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00045</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3600774">3600774</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23515395">23515395</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFD'AmbroseChoudhary2003" class="citation web cs1">D'Ambrose C, Choudhary R (2003). Elert G (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hypertextbook.com/facts/2003/ChrisDAmbrose.shtml">"Frequency range of human hearing"</a>. The Physics Factbook. Retrieved 22 January 2022.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-eop_constancy-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-eop_constancy_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eop_constancy_21-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eop_constancy_21-2">c</a> <cite id="CITEREFMoore2009" class="citation book cs1">Moore BC (15 October 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Y4TOEN4f5ZMC&pg=PA136">"Audition"</a>. In Goldstein EB (ed.). Encyclopedia of Perception. Sage. pp. 136–137. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4129-4081-8</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111109162606/http://books.google.com/books?id=Y4TOEN4f5ZMC&pg=PA136">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2011. Retrieved 26 March 2011.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFKlatzkyLedermanMetzger1985" class="citation journal cs1">Klatzky RL, Lederman SJ, Metzger VA (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3758%2FBF03211351">"Identifying objects by touch: An "expert system.""</a>. Perception & Psychophysics. 37 (4): 299–302. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3758%2FBF03211351">10.3758/BF03211351</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4034346">4034346</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFLedermanKlatzky1987" class="citation journal cs1">Lederman SJ, Klatzky RL (1987). "Hand movements: A window into haptic object recognition". Cognitive Psychology. 19 (3): 342–368. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0010-0285%2887%2990008-9">10.1016/0010-0285(87)90008-9</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3608405">3608405</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3157751">3157751</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Robles-de-la-torre2001-24"><a href="#cite_ref-Robles-de-la-torre2001_24-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRobles-de-la-torreHayward2001" class="citation journal cs1">Robles-de-la-torre G, Hayward V (2001). "Force can overcome object geometry in the perception of shape through active touch". Nature. 412 (6845): 445–448. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001Natur.412..445R">2001Natur.412..445R</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F35086588">10.1038/35086588</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11473320">11473320</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4413295">4413295</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGibson1966" class="citation book cs1">Gibson J (1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sensesconsidered00jame">The senses considered as perceptual systems</a>. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-313-23961-8</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dNhFLnc6NRkC&pg=PA201">Human biology (Page 201/464)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170102150409/https://books.google.com/books?id=dNhFLnc6NRkC&lpg=PA201">Archived</a> 2 January 2017 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Daniel D. Chiras. Jones & Bartlett Learning, 2005.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-DeVereCalvert2010_39-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DeVereCalvert2010_39_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeVereCalvert2010_39_27-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFDeVereCalvert2010" class="citation book cs1">DeVere R, Calvert M (31 August 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m6WOtX2QAtwC&pg=PA39">Navigating Smell and Taste Disorders</a>. Demos Medical Publishing. pp. 39–40. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-932603-96-5</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111109163210/http://books.google.com/books?id=m6WOtX2QAtwC&pg=PA39">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2011. Retrieved 26 March 2011.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110418051954/http://www.trendcentral.com/life/umami-dearest/">"Umami Dearest: The mysterious fifth taste has officially infiltrated the food scene"</a>. trendcentral.com. 23 February 2010. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trendcentral.com/life/umami-dearest/">the original</a> on 18 April 2011. Retrieved 26 March 2011.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.foodchannel.com/articles/article/8-food-trend-for-2010-i-want-my-umami/">"#8 Food Trend for 2010: I Want My Umami"</a>. foodchannel.com. 6 December 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110711015658/http://www.foodchannel.com/articles/article/8-food-trend-for-2010-i-want-my-umami/">Archived</a> from the original on 11 July 2011.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-SiegelAlbers2006-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SiegelAlbers2006_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SiegelAlbers2006_30-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SiegelAlbers2006_30-2">c</a> <cite id="CITEREFSiegelAlbers2006" class="citation book cs1">Siegel GJ, Albers RW (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Af0IyHtGCMUC&pg=PA825">Basic neurochemistry: molecular, cellular, and medical aspects</a>. Academic Press. p. 825. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-12-088397-4</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111109162711/http://books.google.com/books?id=Af0IyHtGCMUC&pg=PA825">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2011. Retrieved 26 March 2011.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aJBIbvClWfcC&pg=PA4">Food texture: measurement and perception (page 3–4/311)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170102091018/https://books.google.com/books?id=aJBIbvClWfcC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA4">Archived</a> 2 January 2017 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Andrew J. Rosenthal. Springer, 1999.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-aa-32"><a href="#cite_ref-aa_32-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=two-great-tastes-not-great-together">Why do two great tastes sometimes not taste great together?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111128175618/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=two-great-tastes-not-great-together">Archived</a> 28 November 2011 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> scientificamerican.com. Dr. Tim Jacob, Cardiff University. 22 May 2009.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBrookes2010" class="citation journal cs1">Brookes J (13 August 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2944383">"Science is perception: what can our sense of smell tell us about ourselves and the world around us?"</a>. Philosophical Transactions. Series A, Mathematical, Physical, and Engineering Sciences. 368 (1924): 3491–3502. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010RSPTA.368.3491B">2010RSPTA.368.3491B</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsta.2010.0117">10.1098/rsta.2010.0117</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2944383">2944383</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20603363">20603363</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFWeir2011" class="citation web cs1">Weir K (February 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.apa.org/monitor/2011/02/scents.aspx">"Scents and sensibility"</a>. American Psychological Association. Retrieved 11 December 2018.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBergland2015" class="citation journal cs1">Bergland C (29 June 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-athletes-way/201506/how-does-scent-drive-human-behavior">"Psychology Today"</a>. How Does Scent Drive Human Behavior?.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> E. R. Smith, D. M. Mackie (2000). Social Psychology. Psychology Press, 2nd ed., p. 20

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Watkins2010-37"><a href="#cite_ref-Watkins2010_37-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFWatkinsRaimondMakin2010" class="citation book cs1">Watkins AJ, Raimond A, Makin SJ (23 March 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ACkNL-G7gUUC&pg=PA440">"Room reflection and constancy in speech-like sounds: Within-band effects"</a>. In Lopez-Poveda EA (ed.). The Neurophysiological Bases of Auditory Perception. Springer. p. 440. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010nbap.book.....L">2010nbap.book.....L</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4419-5685-9</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111109163241/http://books.google.com/books?id=ACkNL-G7gUUC&pg=PA440">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2011. Retrieved 26 March 2011.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRosenblum2008" class="citation book cs1">Rosenblum LD (15 April 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EwY15naRiFgC&q=%22Primacy+of+Multimodal+Speech+Perception%22&pg=PA51">"Primacy of Multimodal Speech Perception"</a>. In Pisoni D, Remez R (eds.). The Handbook of Speech Perception. John Wiley & Sons. p. 51. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-470-75677-5</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFDavisJohnsrude2007" class="citation journal cs1">Davis MH, Johnsrude IS (July 2007). "Hearing speech sounds: Top-down influences on the interface between audition and speech perception". Hearing Research. 229 (1–2): 132–147. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.heares.2007.01.014">10.1016/j.heares.2007.01.014</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17317056">17317056</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:12111361">12111361</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFWarren1970" class="citation journal cs1">Warren RM (1970). "Restoration of missing speech sounds". Science. 167 (3917): 392–393. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1970Sci...167..392W">1970Sci...167..392W</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.167.3917.392">10.1126/science.167.3917.392</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5409744">5409744</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:30356740">30356740</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://human-memory.net/somatosensory-cortex/">"Somatosensory Cortex"</a>. The Human Memory. 31 October 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2020.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFCaseLaubacherOlaussonWang2016" class="citation journal cs1">Case LK, Laubacher CM, Olausson H, Wang B, Spagnolo PA, Bushnell MC (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4879201">"Encoding of Touch Intensity But Not Pleasantness in Human Primary Somatosensory Cortex"</a>. J Neurosci. 36 (21): 5850–60. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1523%2FJNEUROSCI.1130-15.2016">10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1130-15.2016</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4879201">4879201</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27225773">27225773</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://courses.lumenlearning.com/waymaker-psychology/chapter/multi-modal-perception/">"Multi-Modal Perception"</a>. Lumen Waymaker. p. Introduction to Psychology. Retrieved 8 March 2020.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Rao_2001-44"><a href="#cite_ref-Rao_2001_44-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRaoMayerHarrington2001" class="citation journal cs1">Rao SM, Mayer AR, Harrington DL (March 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://escholarship.org/uc/item/80c4d02m">"The evolution of brain activation during temporal processing"</a>. Nature Neuroscience. 4 (3): 317–23. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F85191">10.1038/85191</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11224550">11224550</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3570715">3570715</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unisci.com/stories/20011/0227013.htm">"Brain Areas Critical To Human Time Sense Identified"</a>. UniSci – Daily University Science News. 27 February 2001.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Amph-DA_reaction_time-46"><a href="#cite_ref-Amph-DA_reaction_time_46-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFParkerLamichhaneCaetanoNarayanan2013" class="citation journal cs1">Parker KL, Lamichhane D, Caetano MS, Narayanan NS (October 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3813949">"Executive dysfunction in Parkinson's disease and timing deficits"</a>. Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience. 7: 75. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffnint.2013.00075">10.3389/fnint.2013.00075</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3813949">3813949</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24198770">24198770</a>. <q>Manipulations of dopaminergic signaling profoundly influence interval timing, leading to the hypothesis that dopamine influences internal pacemaker, or "clock", activity. For instance, amphetamine, which increases concentrations of dopamine at the synaptic cleft advances the start of responding during interval timing, whereas antagonists of D2 type dopamine receptors typically slow timing;... Depletion of dopamine in healthy volunteers impairs timing, while amphetamine releases synaptic dopamine and speeds up timing.</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMetzinger2009" class="citation book cs1">Metzinger T (2009). The Ego Tunnel. Basic Books. pp. 117–118. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-465-04567-9</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFWegnerWheatley1999" class="citation journal cs1">Wegner DM, Wheatley T (July 1999). "Apparent mental causation. Sources of the experience of will". The American Psychologist. 54 (7): 480–92. <a href="CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.188.8271">10.1.1.188.8271</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0003-066x.54.7.480">10.1037/0003-066x.54.7.480</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10424155">10424155</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMetzinger2003" class="citation book cs1">Metzinger T (2003). Being No One. p. 508.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMandler1980" class="citation journal cs1">Mandler (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/58b2c2fc">"Recognizing: the judgement of prior occurrence"</a>. Psychological Review. 87 (3): 252–271. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0033-295X.87.3.252">10.1037/0033-295X.87.3.252</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2166238">2166238</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHoPoetaJacobsonZolnik2015" class="citation journal cs1">Ho JW, Poeta DL, Jacobson TK, Zolnik TA, Neske GT, Connors BW, Burwell RD (September 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4588607">"Bidirectional Modulation of Recognition Memory"</a>. The Journal of Neuroscience. 35 (39): 13323–35. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1523%2FJNEUROSCI.2278-15.2015">10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2278-15.2015</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4588607">4588607</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26424881">26424881</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFKinnavaneAminOlarte-SánchezAggleton2016" class="citation journal cs1">Kinnavane L, Amin E, Olarte-Sánchez CM, Aggleton JP (November 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5082501">"Detecting and discriminating novel objects: The impact of perirhinal cortex disconnection on hippocampal activity patterns"</a>. Hippocampus. 26 (11): 1393–1413. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fhipo.22615">10.1002/hipo.22615</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5082501">5082501</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27398938">27398938</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFThemes2017" class="citation news cs1">Themes UF (29 March 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://abdominalkey.com/sensory-corpuscles/">"Sensory Corpuscles"</a>. Abdominal Key. Retrieved 13 July 2018.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sensoryhealth.org/basic/your-8-senses">"Your 8 Senses"</a>. sensoryhealth.org. Retrieved 6 May 2024.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sensoryhealth.org/basic/your-8-senses">"Your 8 Senses"</a>. sensoryhealth.org. Retrieved 6 May 2024.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Wettlaufer2003-56"><a href="#cite_ref-Wettlaufer2003_56-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFWettlaufer2003" class="citation book cs1">Wettlaufer AK (2003). In the mind's eye : the visual impulse in Diderot, Baudelaire and Ruskin, pg. 257. Amsterdam: Rodopi. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-90-420-1035-2</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=104183551">The Secret Advantage Of Being Short</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090521081301/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=104183551">Archived</a> 21 May 2009 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by Robert Krulwich. All Things Considered, NPR. 18 May 2009.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBedford2011" class="citation journal cs1">Bedford FL (2011). "The missing sensory modality: the immune system". Perception. 40 (10): 1265–1267. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1068%2Fp7119">10.1068/p7119</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22308900">22308900</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9546850">9546850</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> Kolb & Whishaw: Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology (2003)

</li>

<li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFFarb_N.Daubenmier_J.Price_C._J.Gard_T.2015" class="citation journal cs1">Farb N., Daubenmier J., Price C. J., Gard T., Kerr C., Dunn B. D., Mehling W. E. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4460802">"Interoception, contemplative practice, and health"</a>. Frontiers in Psychology. 6: 763. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2015.00763">10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00763</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4460802">4460802</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26106345">26106345</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-AtkinsonAtkinson1990-61"><a href="#cite_ref-AtkinsonAtkinson1990_61-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFAtkinsonAtkinsonSmith1990" class="citation book cs1">Atkinson RL, Atkinson RC, Smith EE (March 1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Nw54PwAACAAJ">Introduction to psychology</a>. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. pp. 177–183. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-15-543689-3</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111109162907/http://books.google.com/books?id=Nw54PwAACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2011. Retrieved 24 March 2011.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Sonderegger1998-62">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sonderegger1998_62-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sonderegger1998_62-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFSonderegger1998" class="citation book cs1">Sonderegger T (16 October 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UUrCHiSb_QsC&pg=PA45">Psychology</a>. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 43–46. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8220-5327-9</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111109162741/http://books.google.com/books?id=UUrCHiSb_QsC&pg=PA45">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2011. Retrieved 24 March 2011.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-enc_constancy-63">^ <a href="#cite_ref-enc_constancy_63-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-enc_constancy_63-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-enc_constancy_63-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-enc_constancy_63-3">d</a> <cite id="CITEREFGoldstein2009" class="citation book cs1">Goldstein EB (15 October 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Y4TOEN4f5ZMC&pg=PA309">"Constancy"</a>. In Goldstein EB (ed.). Encyclopedia of Perception. Sage. pp. 309–313. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4129-4081-8</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111109162834/http://books.google.com/books?id=Y4TOEN4f5ZMC&pg=PA309">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2011. Retrieved 26 March 2011.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Roeckelein2006-64"><a href="#cite_ref-Roeckelein2006_64-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRoeckelein2006" class="citation book cs1">Roeckelein JE (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1Yn6NZgxvssC&pg=PA126">Elsevier's dictionary of psychological theories</a>. Elsevier. p. 126. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-444-51750-0</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111109162549/http://books.google.com/books?id=1Yn6NZgxvssC&pg=PA126">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2011. Retrieved 24 March 2011.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Yantis2001-65"><a href="#cite_ref-Yantis2001_65-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFYantis2001" class="citation book cs1">Yantis S (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GpGvYSTk9gYC&pg=PA7">Visual perception: essential readings</a>. Psychology Press. p. 7. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-86377-598-7</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111109162254/http://books.google.com/books?id=GpGvYSTk9gYC&pg=PA7">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2011. Retrieved 24 March 2011.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> Gray, Peter O. (2006): Psychology, 5th ed., New York: Worth, p. 281. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7167-0617-5</bdi>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFWolfeKluenderLeviBartoshuk2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Jeremy_M._Wolfe" title="Jeremy M. Wolfe">Wolfe JM</a>, Kluender KR, Levi DM, Bartoshuk LM, Herz RS, Klatzky RL, Lederman SJ (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110723150836/http://www.sinauer.com/wolfe/chap4/gestaltF.htm">"Gestalt Grouping Principles"</a>. Sensation and Perception (2nd ed.). Sinauer Associates. pp. 78, 80. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-87893-938-1</bdi>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sinauer.com./wolfe/chap4/gestaltF.htm">the original</a> on 23 July 2011.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> Goldstein (2009). pp. 105–107

</li>

<li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBanerjee1994" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Banerjee JC (1994). "Gestalt Theory of Perception". Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Psychological Terms. M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. pp. 107–108. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-81-85880-28-0</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFWeiten1998" class="citation book cs1">Weiten W (1998). Psychology: themes and variations (4th ed.). Brooks/Cole Pub. Co. p. 144. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-534-34014-8</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Corsini2002-71"><a href="#cite_ref-Corsini2002_71-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFCorsini2002" class="citation book cs1">Corsini RJ (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0uxnglHzYaoC&pg=PA219">The dictionary of psychology</a>. Psychology Press. p. 219. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-58391-328-4</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111109162655/http://books.google.com/books?id=0uxnglHzYaoC&pg=PA219">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2011. Retrieved 24 March 2011.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Kushner2008-72">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kushner2008_72-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kushner2008_72-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFKushner2008" class="citation book cs1">Kushner LH (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TYn5VHp9jioC&pg=PA1">Contrast in judgments of mental health</a>. p. 1. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-549-91314-6</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111109163219/http://books.google.com/books?id=TYn5VHp9jioC&pg=PA1">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2011. Retrieved 24 March 2011.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Plous1993-73">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Plous1993_73-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Plous1993_73-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFPlous1993" class="citation book cs1">Plous S (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xvWOQgAACAAJ">The psychology of judgment and decision making</a>. McGraw-Hill. pp. 38–41. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-07-050477-6</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111109162735/http://books.google.com/books?id=xvWOQgAACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2011. Retrieved 24 March 2011.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Moskowitz2005-74"><a href="#cite_ref-Moskowitz2005_74-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMoskowitz2005" class="citation book cs1">Moskowitz GB (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_-NLW8Ynvp8C&pg=PA421">Social cognition: understanding self and others</a>. Guilford Press. p. 421. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-59385-085-2</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111109163155/http://books.google.com/books?id=_-NLW8Ynvp8C&pg=PA421">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2011. Retrieved 24 March 2011.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Popper2010-75"><a href="#cite_ref-Popper2010_75-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFPopper2010" class="citation book cs1">Popper AN (30 November 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZYXd3CF1_vkC&pg=PA150">Music Perception</a>. Springer. p. 150. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4419-6113-6</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111109163046/http://books.google.com/books?id=ZYXd3CF1_vkC&pg=PA150">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2011. Retrieved 24 March 2011.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBiederlackCastelo-BrancoNeuenschwanderWheeler2006" class="citation journal cs1">Biederlack J, Castelo-Branco M, Neuenschwander S, Wheeler D, Singer W, Nikolić D (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neuron.2006.11.012">"Brightness induction: Rate enhancement and neuronal synchronization as complementary codes"</a>. Neuron. 52 (6): 1073–1083. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neuron.2006.11.012">10.1016/j.neuron.2006.11.012</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17178409">17178409</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16732916">16732916</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> Stone, James V. (2012): "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HZf6AQAAQBAJ">Vision and Brain: How we perceive the world</a>", Cambridge, MIT Press, pp. 155–178.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> Gibson, James J. (2002): "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181106171520/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f594/23f1a766380ff945fc401b976618a2b2a92a.pdf">A Theory of Direct Visual Perception</a>". In: Alva Noë/Evan Thompson (Eds.), Vision and Mind. Selected Readings in the Philosophy of Perception, Cambridge, MIT Press, pp. 77–89.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSokolowski2008" class="citation book cs1">Sokolowski R (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NIEJt5afhwgC">Phenomenology of the Human Person</a>. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 199–200. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-521-71766-3</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150925011659/https://books.google.com/books?id=NIEJt5afhwgC&printsec=frontcover">Archived</a> from the original on 25 September 2015.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRichards1976" class="citation journal cs1">Richards RJ (December 1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/faculty/files/richards/James%20Gibson's%20Passive%20Theory%20of%20Perception.pdf">"James Gibson's Passive Theory of Perception: A Rejection of the Doctrine of Specific Nerve Energies"</a> (PDF). Philosophy and Phenomenological Research. 37 (2): 218–233. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2107193">10.2307/2107193</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2107193">2107193</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130613180128/http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/faculty/files/richards/James%20Gibson's%20Passive%20Theory%20of%20Perception.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 13 June 2013.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> Consciousness in Action, S. L. Hurley, illustrated, <a href="Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>, 2002, 0674007964, pp. 430–432.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> Glasersfeld, Ernst von (1995), Radical Constructivism: A Way of Knowing and Learning, London: RoutledgeFalmer; Poerksen, Bernhard (ed.) (2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8-_EsHHxHYcC">The Certainty of Uncertainty: Dialogues Introducing Constructivism</a>, Exeter: Imprint Academic; Wright. Edmond (2005). Narrative, Perception, Language, and Faith, Basingstoke: <a href="Palgrave_Macmillan" title="Palgrave Macmillan">Palgrave Macmillan</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Gaulin_4-83">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gaulin_4_83-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gaulin_4_83-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gaulin_4_83-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gaulin_4_83-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gaulin_4_83-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gaulin_4_83-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gaulin_4_83-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gaulin_4_83-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gaulin_4_83-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gaulin_4_83-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gaulin_4_83-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gaulin_4_83-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gaulin_4_83-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gaulin_4_83-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gaulin_4_83-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gaulin_4_83-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gaulin_4_83-16">q</a> Gaulin, Steven J. C. and Donald H. McBurney. Evolutionary Psychology. <a href="Prentice_Hall" title="Prentice Hall">Prentice Hall</a>. 2003. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-13-111529-3</bdi>, Chapter 4, pp. 81–101.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Dewey1-84"><a href="#cite_ref-Dewey1_84-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFDewey_J1896" class="citation journal cs1">Dewey J (1896). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181106132335/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/a7ab/dafa9cca3547d8f441ee9dc3b5ad19ee7f59.pdf">"The reflex arc concept in psychology"</a> (PDF). <a href="Psychological_Review" title="Psychological Review">Psychological Review</a>. 3 (4): 359–370. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0070405">10.1037/h0070405</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14028152">14028152</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/a7ab/dafa9cca3547d8f441ee9dc3b5ad19ee7f59.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 6 November 2018.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Friston1-85"><a href="#cite_ref-Friston1_85-0">^</a> Friston, K. (2010) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bdl.kaist.ac.kr/lecture/2011springbis525/10%20(2010)%20The%20free-energy%20principle-%20a%20unified%20brain%20theory.pdf">The free-energy principle: a unified brain theory?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170808232006/http://bdl.kaist.ac.kr/lecture/2011springbis525/10%20(2010)%20The%20free-energy%20principle-%20a%20unified%20brain%20theory.pdf">Archived</a> 8 August 2017 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> nature reviews neuroscience 11:127-38

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Tishby1-86"><a href="#cite_ref-Tishby1_86-0">^</a> Tishby, N. and D. Polani, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.259.8031&rep=rep1&type=pdf">Information theory of decisions and actions</a>, in Perception-Action Cycle. 2011, Springer. p. 601–636.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-AhiAssa1-87">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AhiAssa1_87-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AhiAssa1_87-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFAhissar_E.,_Assa_E.2016" class="citation journal cs1">Ahissar E., Assa E. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4913359">"Perception as a closed-loop convergence process"</a>. <a href="ELife" title="ELife">eLife</a>. 5 e12830. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7554%2FeLife.12830">10.7554/eLife.12830</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4913359">4913359</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27159238">27159238</a>.</cite><a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" title="creativecommons:by/4.0/" class="external"></a> This article incorporates text from this source, which is available under the <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" class="extiw external" title="creativecommons:by/4.0/">CC BY 4.0</a> license.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:0-88">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_88-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_88-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_88-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_88-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_88-4">e</a> <cite id="CITEREFGoldstein2015" class="citation book cs1">Goldstein EB (2015). Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 4th Edition. Stamford, CT: <a href="Cengage_Learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Cengage Learning">Cengage Learning</a>. pp. 109–112. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-285-76388-0</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFTreismanGelade1980" class="citation journal cs1">Treisman A, Gelade G (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080905025042/http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homepage/class/Psy355/Gilden/treisman.pdf">"A Feature-Integration Theory of Attention"</a> (PDF). Cognitive Psychology. 12 (1): 97–136. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0010-0285%2880%2990005-5">10.1016/0010-0285(80)90005-5</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7351125">7351125</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:353246">353246</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homepage/class/Psy355/Gilden/treisman.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 5 September 2008 – via <a href="Science_Direct" class="mw-redirect" title="Science Direct">Science Direct</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:1-90"><a href="#cite_ref-:1_90-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGoldstein2010" class="citation book cs1">Goldstein EB (2010). Sensation and Perception (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning. pp. 144–146. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-495-60149-4</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:2-91">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_91-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_91-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFTreismanSchmidt1982" class="citation journal cs1">Treisman A, Schmidt H (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0010028582900068">"Illusory Conjunctions in the Perception of Objects"</a>. Cognitive Psychology. 14 (1): 107–141. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0010-0285%2882%2990006-8">10.1016/0010-0285(82)90006-8</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7053925">7053925</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11201516">11201516</a> – via Science Direct.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:3-92">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_92-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_92-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFTreisman1977" class="citation journal cs1">Treisman A (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0010028582900068">"Focused Attention in The Perception and Retrieval of Multidimensional Stimuli"</a>. Cognitive Psychology. 14 (1): 107–141. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0010-0285%2882%2990006-8">10.1016/0010-0285(82)90006-8</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7053925">7053925</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11201516">11201516</a> – via Science Direct.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> Tomasello, M. (1999). The Cultural Origins of Human Cognition. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 1999.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> Tomasello, M. (2019). Becoming Human: A Theory of Ontogeny. Cambridge, Massachusetts: <a href="Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> Val Danilov, I. & Mihailova, S. (2023). "Empirical Evidence of Shared Intentionality: Towards Bioengineering Systems Development." OBM Neurobiology 2023; 7(2): 167; doi:10.21926/obm.neurobiol.2302167. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.lidsen.com/journals/neurobiology/neurobiology-07-02-167">https://www.lidsen.com/journals/neurobiology/neurobiology-07-02-167</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> McClung, J. S., Placì, S., Bangerter, A., Clément, F., & Bshary, R. (2017). "The language of cooperation: shared intentionality drives variation in helping as a function of group membership." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 284(1863), 20171682. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2017.1682">http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2017.1682</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> Shteynberg, G., & Galinsky, A. D. (2011). "Implicit coordination: Sharing goals with similar others intensifies goal pursuit." Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47(6), 1291-1294., <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp</a>.

2011.04.012.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> Fishburn, F. A., Murty, V. P., Hlutkowsky, C. O., MacGillivray, C. E., Bemis, L. M., Murphy, M. E., ... & Perlman, S. B. (2018). "Putting our heads together: interpersonal neural synchronization as a biological mechanism for shared intentionality." Social cognitive and affective neuroscience, 13(8), 841-849.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFVal_Danilov2023" class="citation journal cs1">Val Danilov I (17 February 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lidsen.com/journals/neurobiology/neurobiology-07-01-156">"Theoretical Grounds of Shared Intentionality for Neuroscience in Developing Bioengineering Systems"</a>. OBM Neurobiology. 7 (1): 156. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.21926%2Fobm.neurobiol.2301156">10.21926/obm.neurobiol.2301156</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFVal_Danilov2023" class="citation journal cs1">Val Danilov I (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lidsen.com/journals/neurobiology/neurobiology-07-04-185">"Shared Intentionality Modulation at the Cell Level: Low-Frequency Oscillations for Temporal Coordination in Bioengineering Systems"</a>. OBM Neurobiology. 7 (4): 1–17. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.21926%2Fobm.neurobiol.2304185">10.21926/obm.neurobiol.2304185</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFVal_Danilov2023" class="citation journal cs1">Val Danilov I (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lidsen.com/journals/neurobiology/neurobiology-07-04-192">"Low-Frequency Oscillations for Nonlocal Neuronal Coupling in Shared Intentionality Before and After Birth: Toward the Origin of Perception"</a>. OBM Neurobiology. 7 (4): 1–17. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.21926%2Fobm.neurobiol.2304192">10.21926/obm.neurobiol.2304192</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSumnerSamuel2009" class="citation journal cs1">Sumner M, Samuel AG (May 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.stanford.edu/~sumner/Publications/2009_Sumner_JML.pdf">"The Effect of Experience on the Perception and Representation of Dialect Variants"</a> (PDF). Journal of Memory and Language. 60 (4). <a href="Elsevier_Inc." class="mw-redirect" title="Elsevier Inc.">Elsevier Inc.</a>: 487–501. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jml.2009.01.001">10.1016/j.jml.2009.01.001</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160202011511/https://web.stanford.edu/~sumner/Publications/2009_Sumner_JML.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2 February 2016. Retrieved 3 June 2015.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFFioriDavidAglioti2014" class="citation journal cs1">Fiori F, David N, Aglioti SM (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4166896">"Processing of proprioceptive and vestibular body signals and self-transcendence in Ashtanga yoga practitioners"</a>. <a href="Frontiers_in_Human_Neuroscience" class="mw-redirect" title="Frontiers in Human Neuroscience">Frontiers in Human Neuroscience</a>. 8: 734. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffnhum.2014.00734">10.3389/fnhum.2014.00734</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4166896">4166896</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25278866">25278866</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSnyder2015" class="citation journal cs1">Snyder J (31 October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4628108">"How previous experience shapes perception in different sensory modalities"</a>. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 9: 594. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffnhum.2015.00594">10.3389/fnhum.2015.00594</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4628108">4628108</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26582982">26582982</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Weiten2008-105">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Weiten2008_105-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Weiten2008_105-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFWeiten2008" class="citation book cs1">Weiten W (17 December 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sILajOhJpOsC&pg=PT193">Psychology: Themes and Variations</a>. Cengage Learning. p. 193. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-495-60197-5</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111109163032/http://books.google.com/books?id=sILajOhJpOsC&pg=PT193">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2011. Retrieved 24 March 2011.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-CoonMitterer2008-106">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CoonMitterer2008_106-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CoonMitterer2008_106-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFCoonMitterer2008" class="citation book cs1">Coon D, Mitterer JO (29 December 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vw20LEaJe10C&pg=PA171">Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind and Behavior</a>. Cengage Learning. pp. 171–172. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-495-59911-1</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111109162432/http://books.google.com/books?id=vw20LEaJe10C&pg=PA171">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2011. Retrieved 24 March 2011.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-HardyHeyes1999-107">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HardyHeyes1999_107-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HardyHeyes1999_107-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HardyHeyes1999_107-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HardyHeyes1999_107-3">d</a> <cite id="CITEREFHardyHeyes1999" class="citation book cs1">Hardy M, Heyes S (2 December 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fjPWqXi9WQsC&pg=PA24">Beginning Psychology</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 24–27. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-19-832821-6</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111109163023/http://books.google.com/books?id=fjPWqXi9WQsC&pg=PA24">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2011. Retrieved 24 March 2011.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-BlockYuker2002-108"><a href="#cite_ref-BlockYuker2002_108-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBlockYuker2002" class="citation book cs1">Block JR, Yuker HE (1 October 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uNMFiMQu8BMC&pg=PA173">Can You Believe Your Eyes?: Over 250 Illusions and Other Visual Oddities</a>. Robson. pp. 173–174. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-86105-586-6</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111109162334/http://books.google.com/books?id=uNMFiMQu8BMC&pg=PA173">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2011. Retrieved 24 March 2011.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFStanekOnes2023" class="citation book cs1">Stanek K, Ones D (20 November 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://umnlibraries.manifoldapp.org/projects/of-anchors-and-sails">Of Anchors & Sails: Personality-Ability Trait Constellations</a>. University of Minnesota. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.24926%2F9781946135988">10.24926/9781946135988</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-946135-98-8</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> "On the Perception of Incongruity: A Paradigm" by Jerome S. Bruner and Leo Postman. Journal of Personality, 18, pp. 206-223. 1949. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Bruner/Cards/">Yorku.ca</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060215174339/http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Bruner/Cards/">Archived</a> 15 February 2006 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131205173145/http://www.edge.org/q2011/q11_6.html">"Predictive Coding"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.edge.org/q2011/q11_6.html">the original</a> on 5 December 2013. Retrieved 24 February 2011.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFO'Regan1992" class="citation journal cs1">O'Regan JK (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/h0084327">"Solving the "real" mysteries of visual perception: The world as an outside memory"</a>. Canadian Journal of Psychology. 46 (3): 461–488. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0084327">10.1037/h0084327</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0008-4255">0008-4255</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1486554">1486554</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFO'ReganNoë2001" class="citation journal cs1">O'Regan JK, Noë A (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0140525X01000115/type/journal_article">"A sensorimotor account of vision and visual consciousness"</a>. Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 24 (5): 939–973. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0140525X01000115">10.1017/S0140525X01000115</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0140-525X">0140-525X</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12239892">12239892</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHatfield2023" class="citation cs2">Hatfield G (2023), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/descartes/">"René Descartes"</a>, in Zalta EN, Nodelman U (eds.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, retrieved 11 November 2023</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFDowning2021" class="citation cs2">Downing L (2021), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/berkeley/">"George Berkeley"</a>, in Zalta EN (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, retrieved 11 November 2023</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRohlf2023" class="citation cs2">Rohlf M (2023), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2023/entries/kant/">"Immanuel Kant"</a>, in Zalta EN, Nodelman U (eds.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2023 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, retrieved 11 November 2023</cite>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div>

<ul><li>Arnheim, R. (1969). Visual Thinking. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-520-24226-5</bdi>.</li>

<li>Flanagan, J. R., & <a href="Susan_Lederman" title="Susan Lederman">Lederman, S. J.</a> (2001). "'Neurobiology: Feeling bumps and holes. News and Views", Nature, 412(6845):389–91. (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://brain.phgy.queensu.ca/flanagan/papers/FlaLed_NAT_01.pdf">PDF</a>)</li>

<li>Gibson, J. J. (1966). The Senses Considered as Perceptual Systems, Houghton Mifflin.</li>

<li>Gibson, J. J. (1987). The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-89859-959-8</bdi></li>

<li>Robles-De-La-Torre, G. (2006). "The Importance of the Sense of Touch in Virtual and Real Environments". IEEE MultiMedia,13(3), Special issue on Haptic User Interfaces for Multimedia Systems, pp. 24–30. (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140124073640/http://www.roblesdelatorre.com/gabriel/GR-IEEE-MM-2006.pdf">PDF</a>)</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .infobox .side-box{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061223231555/http://www.simplypsychology.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/perception-theories.html">Theories of Perception</a> Several different aspects on perception</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.richardgregory.org/">Richard L Gregory</a> Theories of Richard. L. Gregory.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://michaelbach.de/ot/">Comprehensive set of optical illusions</a>, presented by <a href="Michael_Bach_(vision_scientist)" title="Michael Bach (vision scientist)">Michael Bach</a>.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.illusions.org/">Optical Illusions</a> Examples of well-known optical illusions.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/epis-per/">The Epistemology of Perception</a> Article in the <a href="Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/cognitive-penetrability-of-perception-and-epistemic-justification/">Cognitive Penetrability of Perception and Epistemic Justification</a> Article in the <a href="Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></li></ul>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Articles_and_topics_related_to_Perception108" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Articles_and_topics_related_to_Perception108" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Articles and topics related to Perception</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px">

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Metaphysics343" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Metaphysics343" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abstract_object_theory" title="Abstract object theory">Abstract object theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li>

<li><a href="Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Enactivism" title="Enactivism">Enactivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Essentialism" title="Essentialism">Essentialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li>

<li><a href="Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li>

<li><a href="Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life">Meaning of life</a></li>

<li><a href="Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>

<li><a href="Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>

<li><a href="Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li>

<li><a href="Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li>

<li><a href="Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li>

<li><a href="Spiritualism_(philosophy)" title="Spiritualism (philosophy)">Spiritualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">Substance theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Theory_of_forms" title="Theory of forms">Theory of forms</a></li>

<li><a href="Truthmaker_theory" title="Truthmaker theory">Truthmaker theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</a></li>

<li><a href="Anima_mundi" title="Anima mundi">Anima mundi</a></li>

<li><a href="Category_of_being" class="mw-redirect" title="Category of being">Category of being</a></li>

<li><a href="Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li>

<li><a href="Causal_closure" title="Causal closure">Causal closure</a></li>

<li><a href="Cogito%2C_ergo_sum" title="Cogito, ergo sum">Cogito, ergo sum</a></li>

<li><a href="Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li>

<li><a href="Cosmos" title="Cosmos">Cosmos</a></li>

<li><a href="Embodied_cognition" title="Embodied cognition">Embodied cognition</a></li>

<li><a href="Entity" title="Entity">Entity</a></li>

<li><a href="Essence" title="Essence">Essence</a></li>

<li><a href="Existence" title="Existence">Existence</a></li>

<li><a href="Experience" title="Experience">Experience</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</a></li>

<li><a href="Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</a></li>

<li><a href="Importance" title="Importance">Importance</a></li>

<li><a href="Information" title="Information">Information</a>

<li><a href="Insight" title="Insight">Insight</a></li>

<li><a href="Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Intention" title="Intention">Intention</a></li>

<li><a href="Linguistic_modality" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic modality">Linguistic modality</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_matter" title="Philosophy of matter">Matter</a></li>

<li><a href="Meaning_(existential)" title="Meaning (existential)">Meaning</a></li>

<li><a href="Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li>

<li><a href="Motion" title="Motion">Motion</a></li>

<li><a href="Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li>

<li><a href="Metaphysical_necessity" title="Metaphysical necessity">Necessity</a></li>

<li><a href="Object_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Object (philosophy)">Object</a></li>

<li><a href="Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li>

<li><a href="Pattern" title="Pattern">Pattern</a></li>

<li><a href="Physical_object" title="Physical object">Physical object</a></li>

<li><a href="Principle" title="Principle">Principle</a></li>

<li><a href="Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li>

<li><a href="Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li>

<li><a href="Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Quality</a></li>

<li><a href="Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></li>

<li><a href="Relations_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Relations (philosophy)">Relation</a></li>

<li><a href="Subject_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject (philosophy)">Subject</a></li>

<li><a href="Substantial_form" title="Substantial form">Substantial form</a></li>

<li><a href="Thought" title="Thought">Thought</a></li>

<li><a href="Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li>

<li><a href="Type%E2%80%93token_distinction" title="Type–token distinction">Type–token distinction</a></li>

<li><a href="Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">Universal</a></li>

<li><a href="Unobservable" title="Unobservable">Unobservable</a></li>

<li><a href="Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li>

<li><a href="Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">Armstrong</a></li>

<li><a href="Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li>

<li><a href="Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li>

<li><a href="Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li>

<li><a href="Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li>

<li><a href="Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li>

<li><a href="Bernard_Bolzano" title="Bernard Bolzano">Bolzano</a></li>

<li><a href="Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap</a></li>

<li><a href="R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood</a></li>

<li><a href="Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a></li>

<li><a href="Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li>

<li><a href="Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Dummett</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali</a></li>

<li><a href="Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li>

<li><a href="Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li>

<li><a href="S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a></li>

<li><a href="Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Kripke</a></li>

<li><a href="Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li>

<li><a href="Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">Lewis</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li>

<li><a href="Hermann_Lotze" title="Hermann Lotze">Lotze</a></li>

<li><a href="Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li>

<li><a href="Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Malebranche</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexius_Meinong" title="Alexius Meinong">Meinong</a></li>

<li><a href="G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li>

<li><a href="Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li>

<li><a href="Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li>

<li><a href="Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li>

<li><a href="Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Peirce</a></li>

<li><a href="Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Plantinga</a></li>

<li><a href="Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>

<li><a href="Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a></li>

<li><a href="Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a></li>

<li><a href="Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a></li>

<li><a href="Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine</a></li>

<li><a href="Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li>

<li><a href="Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li>

<li><a href="Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li>

<li><a href="Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Scotus</a></li>

<li><a href="Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li>

<li><a href="P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">Strawson</a></li>

<li><a href="Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li>

<li><a href="Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Whitehead</a></li>

<li><a href="Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a></li>

<li><a href="Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Wolff</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Sophist_(dialogue)" title="Sophist (dialogue)">Sophist</a> (c. 350 BC)</li>

<li><a href="Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a> (c. 350 BC)</li>

<li><a href="Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Nyāya Sūtras</a> (c. 200 BC)</li>

<li><a href="De_rerum_natura" title="De rerum natura">De rerum natura</a> (c. 80 BC)</li>

<li><a href="Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a> (c. 50)</li>

<li><a href="Enneads" title="Enneads">Enneads</a> (c. 270)</li>

<li><a href="Daneshnameh-ye_Alai" class="mw-redirect" title="Daneshnameh-ye Alai">Daneshnameh-ye Alai</a> and <a href="Al-Nijat" title="Al-Nijat">Al-Nijat</a> (c. 1000)</li>

<li><a href="Meditations_on_First_Philosophy" title="Meditations on First Philosophy">Meditations on First Philosophy</a> (1641)</li>

<li><a href="Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics</a> (1677)</li>

<li><a href="A_Treatise_Concerning_the_Principles_of_Human_Knowledge" title="A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge">A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge</a> (1710)</li>

<li><a href="Monadology" title="Monadology">Monadology</a> (1714)</li>

<li><a href="Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a> (1781)</li>

<li><a href="Prolegomena_to_Any_Future_Metaphysics" title="Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics">Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics</a> (1783)</li>

<li><a href="The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit" title="The Phenomenology of Spirit">The Phenomenology of Spirit</a> (1807)</li>

<li><a href="The_World_as_Will_and_Representation" title="The World as Will and Representation">The World as Will and Representation</a> (1818)</li>

<li><a href="Concluding_Unscientific_Postscript_to_Philosophical_Fragments" title="Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments">Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments</a> (1846)</li>

<li><a href="Being_and_Time" title="Being and Time">Being and Time</a> (1927)</li>

<li><a href="Being_and_Nothingness" title="Being and Nothingness">Being and Nothingness</a> (1943)</li>

<li><a href="Simulacra_and_Simulation" title="Simulacra and Simulation">Simulacra and Simulation</a> (1981)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a></li>

<li><a href="Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_metaphysics" title="Feminist metaphysics">Feminist metaphysics</a></li>

<li><a href="Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Interpretations of quantum mechanics">Interpretations of quantum mechanics</a></li>

<li><a href="Mereology" title="Mereology">Mereology</a></li>

<li><a href="Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Philosophy of psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_self" title="Philosophy of self">Philosophy of self</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Philosophy of space and time</a></li>

<li><a href="Teleology" title="Teleology">Teleology</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> Category</li>

<li> <a href="Portal%3APhilosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Epistemology722" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Epistemology722" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Audi" title="Robert Audi">Robert Audi</a></li>

<li><a href="Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li>

<li><a href="Laurence_BonJour" title="Laurence BonJour">Laurence BonJour</a></li>

<li><a href="Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a></li>

<li><a href="Keith_DeRose" title="Keith DeRose">Keith DeRose</a></li>

<li><a href="Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a></li>

<li><a href="Fred_Dretske" title="Fred Dretske">Fred Dretske</a></li>

<li><a href="Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a></li>

<li><a href="Alvin_Goldman" title="Alvin Goldman">Alvin Goldman</a></li>

<li><a href="Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Nelson Goodman</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Paul Grice</a></li>

<li><a href="Anil_Gupta_(philosopher)" title="Anil Gupta (philosopher)">Anil Gupta</a></li>

<li><a href="Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Susan Haack</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li>

<li><a href="Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li>

<li><a href="S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li>

<li><a href="Peter_D._Klein" title="Peter D. Klein">Peter Klein</a></li>

<li><a href="Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li>

<li><a href="Hilary_Kornblith" title="Hilary Kornblith">Hilary Kornblith</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li>

<li><a href="G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li>

<li><a href="John_McDowell" title="John McDowell">John McDowell</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a></li>

<li><a href="Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li>

<li><a href="Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>

<li><a href="Duncan_Pritchard" title="Duncan Pritchard">Duncan Pritchard</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Pryor" title="James Pryor">James Pryor</a></li>

<li><a href="Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li>

<li><a href="Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a></li>

<li><a href="Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li>

<li><a href="Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li>

<li><a href="Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a></li>

<li><a href="Susanna_Siegel" title="Susanna Siegel">Susanna Siegel</a></li>

<li><a href="Ernest_Sosa" title="Ernest Sosa">Ernest Sosa</a></li>

<li><a href="P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li>

<li><a href="Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li>

<li><a href="Timothy_Williamson" title="Timothy Williamson">Timothy Williamson</a></li>

<li><a href="Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li>

<li><a href="Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li>

<li><a href="Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li>

<li><a href="Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li>

<li><a href="Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_epistemology" title="Feminist epistemology">Feminist epistemology</a></li>

<li><a href="Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li>

<li><a href="Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_holism" title="Semantic holism">Holism</a></li>

<li><a href="Infinitism" title="Infinitism">Infinitism</a></li>

<li><a href="Innatism" title="Innatism">Innatism</a></li>

<li><a href="Na%C3%AFve_realism" title="Naïve realism">Naïve realism</a></li>

<li><a href="Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalized epistemology</a></li>

<li><a href="Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li>

<li><a href="Reliabilism" title="Reliabilism">Reliabilism</a></li>

<li><a href="Direct_and_indirect_realism" title="Direct and indirect realism">Representational realism</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental idealism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">A priori knowledge</a></li>

<li><a href="A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">A posteriori knowledge</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li>

<li><a href="Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li>

<li><a href="Certainty" title="Certainty">Certainty</a></li>

<li><a href="Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li>

<li><a href="Descriptive_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Descriptive knowledge">Descriptive knowledge</a></li>

<li><a href="Exploratory_thought" title="Exploratory thought">Exploratory thought</a></li>

<li><a href="Epistemic_injustice" title="Epistemic injustice">Epistemic injustice</a></li>

<li><a href="Epistemic_virtue" title="Epistemic virtue">Epistemic virtue</a></li>

<li><a href="Gettier_problem" title="Gettier problem">Gettier problem</a></li>

<li><a href="Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li>

<li><a href="Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">Justification</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li>

<li><a href="Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li>

<li><a href="Privileged_access" class="mw-redirect" title="Privileged access">Privileged access</a></li>

<li><a href="Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li>

<li><a href="Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">Problem of other minds</a></li>

<li><a href="Procedural_knowledge" title="Procedural knowledge">Procedural knowledge</a></li>

<li><a href="Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li>

<li><a href="Regress_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Regress argument">Regress argument</a></li>

<li><a href="Simplicity" title="Simplicity">Simplicity</a></li>

<li><a href="Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li>

<li><a href="Uncertainty" title="Uncertainty">Uncertainty</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li>

<li><a href="Formal_epistemology" title="Formal epistemology">Formal epistemology</a></li>

<li><a href="Metaepistemology" title="Metaepistemology">Metaepistemology</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Philosophy of perception</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtue_epistemology" title="Virtue epistemology">Virtue epistemology</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> Category</li>

<li> <a href="Outline_of_epistemology" title="Outline of epistemology">Outline</a></li>

<li> <a href="Portal%3APhilosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Portal</a></li>

<li> WikiProject</li>

<li>Stubs</li>

<li>Discussion</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Aesthetics259" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Aesthetics259" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ancient_aesthetics" title="Ancient aesthetics">Ancient</a></li>

<li><a href="African_aesthetic" title="African aesthetic">Africa</a></li>

<li><a href="Indian_aesthetics" title="Indian aesthetics">India</a></li>

<li><a href="Japanese_aesthetics" title="Japanese aesthetics">Japanese</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematics_and_art" title="Mathematics and art">Mathematics</a></li>

<li><a href="Medieval_aesthetics" title="Medieval aesthetics">Medieval</a></li>

<li><a href="Aesthetics_of_music" title="Aesthetics of music">Music</a></li>

<li><a href="Aesthetics_of_nature" title="Aesthetics of nature">Nature</a></li>

<li><a href="Aesthetics_of_science" title="Aesthetics of science">Science</a></li>

<li><a href="Theological_aesthetics" title="Theological aesthetics">Theology</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aestheticism" title="Aestheticism">Aestheticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Classicism" title="Classicism">Classicism</a></li>

<li><a href="Fascism#Aesthetics" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_aesthetics" title="Feminist aesthetics">Feminism</a></li>

<li><a href="Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Historicism_(art)" title="Historicism (art)">Historicism</a></li>

<li><a href="Marxist_aesthetics" title="Marxist aesthetics">Marxism</a></li>

<li><a href="Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li>

<li><a href="Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">Postmodernism</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychoanalytic_theory" title="Psychoanalytic theory">Psychoanalysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Aesthetic_Realism" title="Aesthetic Realism">Realism</a></li>

<li><a href="Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Symbolism_(arts)" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbolism (arts)">Symbolism</a></li>

<li><a href="Theosophy_and_visual_arts" title="Theosophy and visual arts">Theosophy</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abhinavagupta" title="Abhinavagupta">Abhinavagupta</a></li>

<li><a href="Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li>

<li><a href="Leon_Battista_Alberti" title="Leon Battista Alberti">Alberti</a></li>

<li><a href="Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li>

<li><a href="B%C3%A9la_Bal%C3%A1zs" title="Béla Balázs">Balázs</a></li>

<li><a href="Hans_Urs_von_Balthasar" title="Hans Urs von Balthasar">Balthasar</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Baudelaire" title="Charles Baudelaire">Baudelaire</a></li>

<li><a href="Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexander_Gottlieb_Baumgarten" title="Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten">Baumgarten</a></li>

<li><a href="Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Benjamin</a></li>

<li><a href="Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li>

<li><a href="Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Coleridge</a></li>

<li><a href="R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood</a></li>

<li><a href="Ananda_Coomaraswamy" title="Ananda Coomaraswamy">Coomaraswamy</a></li>

<li><a href="Arthur_Danto" title="Arthur Danto">Danto</a></li>

<li><a href="Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li>

<li><a href="Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li>

<li><a href="Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Goodman</a></li>

<li><a href="Clement_Greenberg" title="Clement Greenberg">Greenberg</a></li>

<li><a href="Eduard_Hanslick" title="Eduard Hanslick">Hanslick</a></li>

<li><a href="Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li>

<li><a href="Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li>

<li><a href="Francis_Hutcheson_(philosopher)" title="Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)">Hutcheson</a></li>

<li><a href="S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li>

<li><a href="Susanne_Langer" title="Susanne Langer">Langer</a></li>

<li><a href="Theodor_Lipps" title="Theodor Lipps">Lipps</a></li>

<li><a href="Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">Lukács</a></li>

<li><a href="Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lyotard" title="Jean-François Lyotard">Lyotard</a></li>

<li><a href="Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li>

<li><a href="Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li>

<li><a href="Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Merleau-Ponty</a></li>

<li><a href="Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li>

<li><a href="Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega y Gasset</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Orwell" title="George Orwell">Orwell</a></li>

<li><a href="Walter_Pater" title="Walter Pater">Pater</a></li>

<li><a href="Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>

<li><a href="Jacques_Ranci%C3%A8re" title="Jacques Rancière">Rancière</a></li>

<li><a href="I._A._Richards" title="I. A. Richards">Richards</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">Ruskin</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li>

<li><a href="Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a></li>

<li><a href="Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li>

<li><a href="Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li>

<li><a href="Rabindranath_Tagore" title="Rabindranath Tagore">Tagore</a></li>

<li><a href="Jun'ichir%C5%8D_Tanizaki" title="Jun'ichirō Tanizaki">Tanizaki</a></li>

<li><a href="Giorgio_Vasari" title="Giorgio Vasari">Vasari</a></li>

<li><a href="Oscar_Wilde" title="Oscar Wilde">Wilde</a></li>

<li><a href="Johann_Joachim_Winckelmann" title="Johann Joachim Winckelmann">Winckelmann</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Appropriation_(art)" title="Appropriation (art)">Appropriation</a></li>

<li><a href="Art_manifesto" title="Art manifesto">Art manifesto</a></li>

<li><a href="Artistic_merit" title="Artistic merit">Artistic merit</a></li>

<li><a href="Avant-garde" title="Avant-garde">Avant-garde</a></li>

<li><a href="Beauty" title="Beauty">Beauty</a>

<ul><li><a href="Feminine_beauty_ideal" title="Feminine beauty ideal">Feminine</a></li>

<li><a href="Masculine_beauty_ideal" title="Masculine beauty ideal">Masculine</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Comedy" title="Comedy">Comedy</a></li>

<li><a href="Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li>

<li><a href="Cuteness" title="Cuteness">Cuteness</a></li>

<li><a href="Depiction" title="Depiction">Depiction</a></li>

<li><a href="Disgust" title="Disgust">Disgust</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecstasy_(philosophy)" title="Ecstasy (philosophy)">Ecstasy</a></li>

<li><a href="Elegance" title="Elegance">Elegance</a></li>

<li><a href="Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Emotions</a></li>

<li><a href="Entertainment" title="Entertainment">Entertainment</a></li>

<li><a href="Eroticism" title="Eroticism">Eroticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Fashion" title="Fashion">Fashion</a></li>

<li><a href="Harmony" title="Harmony">Harmony</a></li>

<li><a href="Humour" title="Humour">Humour</a></li>

<li><a href="Aesthetic_interpretation" title="Aesthetic interpretation">Interpretation</a></li>

<li><a href="Judgment" class="mw-redirect" title="Judgment">Judgment</a></li>

<li><a href="Kitsch" title="Kitsch">Kitsch</a></li>

<li><a href="Life_imitating_art" title="Life imitating art">Life imitating art</a></li>

<li><a href="Magnificence_(history_of_ideas)" title="Magnificence (history of ideas)">Magnificence</a></li>

<li><a href="Mimesis" title="Mimesis">Mimesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Picturesque" title="Picturesque">Picturesque</a></li>

<li><a href="Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Quality</a></li>

<li><a href="Recreation" title="Recreation">Recreation</a></li>

<li><a href="Reverence_(emotion)" title="Reverence (emotion)">Reverence</a></li>

<li><a href="Style_(visual_arts)" title="Style (visual arts)">Style</a></li>

<li><a href="Sublime_(philosophy)" title="Sublime (philosophy)">Sublime</a></li>

<li><a href="Taste_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Taste (sociology)">Taste</a></li>

<li><a href="Tragedy" title="Tragedy">Tragedy</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Hippias_Major" title="Hippias Major">Hippias Major</a> (c. 390 BC)</li>

<li><a href="Poetics_(Aristotle)" title="Poetics (Aristotle)">Poetics</a> (c. 335 BC)</li>

<li><a href="The_Literary_Mind_and_the_Carving_of_Dragons" title="The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons">The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons</a> (c. 100)</li>

<li><a href="On_the_Sublime" title="On the Sublime">On the Sublime</a> (c. 500)</li>

<li><a href="On_the_Sublime_and_Beautiful" class="mw-redirect" title="On the Sublime and Beautiful">On the Sublime and Beautiful</a> (1757)</li>

<li><a href="Lectures_on_Aesthetics" title="Lectures on Aesthetics">Lectures on Aesthetics</a> (1835)</li>

<li>"<a href="The_Critic_as_Artist" title="The Critic as Artist">The Critic as Artist</a>" (1891)</li>

<li><a href="In_Praise_of_Shadows" title="In Praise of Shadows">In Praise of Shadows</a> (1933)</li>

<li><a href="Art_as_Experience" title="Art as Experience">Art as Experience</a> (1934)</li>

<li>"<a href="The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction" title="The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction">The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction</a>" (1935)</li>

<li>"<a href="Avant-Garde_and_Kitsch" title="Avant-Garde and Kitsch">Avant-Garde and Kitsch</a>" (1939)</li>

<li><a href="Critical_Essays_(Orwell)" title="Critical Essays (Orwell)">Critical Essays</a> (1946)</li>

<li><a href="The_Aesthetic_Dimension" title="The Aesthetic Dimension">The Aesthetic Dimension</a> (1977)</li>

<li><a href="Why_Beauty_Matters" title="Why Beauty Matters">Why Beauty Matters</a> (2009)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aestheticization_of_politics" title="Aestheticization of politics">Aestheticization of politics</a></li>

<li><a href="Applied_aesthetics" title="Applied aesthetics">Applied aesthetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Arts_criticism" title="Arts criticism">Arts criticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_aesthetics" title="Evolutionary aesthetics">Evolutionary aesthetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematical_beauty" title="Mathematical beauty">Mathematical beauty</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuroesthetics" title="Neuroesthetics">Neuroesthetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Patterns_in_nature" title="Patterns in nature">Patterns in nature</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_design" title="Philosophy of design">Philosophy of design</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_film" title="Philosophy of film">Philosophy of film</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_music" title="Philosophy of music">Philosophy of music</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychology_of_art" title="Psychology of art">Psychology of art</a></li>

<li><a href="Theory_of_art" title="Theory of art">Theory of art</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><a href="Outline_of_aesthetics" title="Outline of aesthetics">Outline</a></li>

<li>Category</li>

<li> <a href="Portal%3APhilosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Mental_processes175" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#efefef;"><div id="Mental_processes175" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Mental processes</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#efefef;;width:1%"><a href="Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Association_(psychology)" title="Association (psychology)">Association</a></li>

<li><a href="Awareness" title="Awareness">Awareness</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_flexibility" title="Cognitive flexibility">Cognitive flexibility</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_liberty" title="Cognitive liberty">Cognitive liberty</a></li>

<li><a href="Forecasting" title="Forecasting">Forecasting</a>

<ul><li><a href="Affective_forecasting" title="Affective forecasting">affective</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Foresight_(psychology)" title="Foresight (psychology)">Foresight</a></li>

<li><a href="Understanding" title="Understanding">Comprehension</a></li>

<li><a href="Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li>

<li><a href="Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li>

<li><a href="Decision-making" title="Decision-making">Decision-making</a></li>

<li><a href="Imagination" title="Imagination">Imagination</a></li>

<li><a href="Intuition" title="Intuition">Intuition</a></li>

<li><a href="Problem_solving" title="Problem solving">Problem solving</a>

<ul><li><a href="Problem_solving#Problem-solving_methods" title="Problem solving">methods</a></li>

<li><a href="Problem_solving#Problem-solving_strategies" title="Problem solving">strategies</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Prospection" title="Prospection">Prospection</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#efefef;;width:1%"></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Amodal_perception" title="Amodal perception">Amodal</a></li>

<li><a href="Color_vision" title="Color vision">Color</a>

<ul><li><a href="RGB_color_model" title="RGB color model">RGB model</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Depth_perception" title="Depth perception">Depth</a></li>

<li><a href="Haptic_perception" title="Haptic perception">Haptic</a> (<a href="Touch" class="mw-redirect" title="Touch">Touch</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Aesthetic_interpretation" title="Aesthetic interpretation">Perception as interpretation</a></li>

<li><a href="Peripheral_vision" title="Peripheral vision">Peripheral</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_perception" title="Social perception">Social</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychoacoustics" title="Psychoacoustics">Sound</a>

<ul><li><a href="Harmonic" title="Harmonic">Harmonics</a></li>

<li><a href="Pitch_(music)" title="Pitch (music)">Pitch</a></li>

<li><a href="Speech_perception" title="Speech perception">Speech</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#efefef;;width:1%"><a href="Memory" title="Memory">Memory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Memory_consolidation" title="Memory consolidation">Consolidation</a></li>

<li><a href="Encoding_(memory)" title="Encoding (memory)">Encoding</a></li>

<li><a href="Storage_(memory)" title="Storage (memory)">Storage</a></li>

<li><a href="Recall_(memory)" title="Recall (memory)">Recall</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#efefef;;width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Attention" title="Attention">Attention</a></li>

<li><a href="Experiential_avoidance" title="Experiential avoidance">Experiential avoidance</a></li>

<li><a href="Institute_of_Higher_Nervous_Activity" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute of Higher Nervous Activity">Higher nervous activity</a></li>

<li><a href="Intention" title="Intention">Intention</a></li>

<li><a href="Ironic_process_theory" title="Ironic process theory">Ironic process theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Learning" title="Learning">Learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Fatigue#Mental" title="Fatigue">Mental fatigue</a></li>

<li><a href="Relational_frame_theory" title="Relational frame theory">Relational frame theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Set_(psychology)" title="Set (psychology)">Mental set</a></li>

<li><a href="Thought" title="Thought">Thinking</a></li>

<li><a href="Thought_suppression" title="Thought suppression">Thought suppression</a></li>

<li><a href="Volition_(psychology)" title="Volition (psychology)">Volition</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#efefef;"><div> Category</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Sensation_and_perception287" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Sensation_and_perception287" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Sense" title="Sense">Sensation</a> and </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Cognitive_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive process">Processes and concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sense" title="Sense">Sensation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Stimulus_(physiology)" title="Stimulus (physiology)">Stimulus</a></li>

<li><a href="Sensory_neuron" title="Sensory neuron">Sensory receptor</a></li>

<li><a href="Transduction_(physiology)" title="Transduction (physiology)">Transduction (physiology)</a></li>

<li><a href="Sensory_processing" title="Sensory processing">Sensory processing</a></li>

<li><a href="Active_sensory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Active sensory system">Active sensory system</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Multimodal_integration" class="mw-redirect" title="Multimodal integration">Multimodal integration</a></li>

<li><a href="Awareness" title="Awareness">Awareness</a></li>

<li><a href="Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li>

<li><a href="Feeling" title="Feeling">Feeling</a></li>

<li><a href="Motion_perception" title="Motion perception">Motion perception</a></li>

<li><a href="Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Human" title="Human">Human</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Exteroception" class="mw-redirect" title="Exteroception">External</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sensory_organ" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory organ">Sensory organs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Inner_ear" title="Inner ear">Inner ear</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_mouth" title="Human mouth">Mouth</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sensory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory system">Sensory systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Visual_system" title="Visual system">Visual system (sense of vision)</a></li>

<li><a href="Auditory_system" title="Auditory system">Auditory system (sense of hearing)</a></li>

<li><a href="Vestibular_system" title="Vestibular system">Vestibular system (sense of balance)</a></li>

<li><a href="Olfactory_system" title="Olfactory system">Olfactory system (sense of smell)</a></li>

<li><a href="Gustatory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Gustatory system">Gustatory system (sense of taste)</a></li>

<li><a href="Somatosensory_system" title="Somatosensory system">Somatosensory system (sense of touch)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sensory <a href="Cranial_nerves" title="Cranial nerves">cranial</a> and <a href="Spinal_nerves" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinal nerves">spinal nerves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Optic_nerve" title="Optic nerve">Optic (II)</a></li>

<li><a href="Vestibulocochlear_nerve" title="Vestibulocochlear nerve">Vestibulocochlear (VIII)</a></li>

<li><a href="Olfactory_nerve" title="Olfactory nerve">Olfactory (I)</a></li>

<li><a href="Facial_nerve" title="Facial nerve">Facial (VII)</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossopharyngeal_nerve" title="Glossopharyngeal nerve">Glossopharyngeal (IX)</a></li>

<li><a href="Trigeminal_nerve" title="Trigeminal nerve">Trigeminal (V)</a></li>

<li><a href="Spinal_nerve" title="Spinal nerve">Spinal</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sensory_cortex" title="Sensory cortex">Cerebral cortices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Visual_cortex" title="Visual cortex">Visual cortex</a></li>

<li><a href="Auditory_cortex" title="Auditory cortex">Auditory cortex</a></li>

<li><a href="Vestibular_cortex" title="Vestibular cortex">Vestibular cortex</a></li>

<li><a href="Olfactory_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfactory cortex">Olfactory cortex</a></li>

<li><a href="Gustatory_cortex" title="Gustatory cortex">Gustatory cortex</a></li>

<li><a href="Somatosensory_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Somatosensory cortex">Somatosensory cortex</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Perceptions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception (vision)</a>

<ul><li><a href="Color" title="Color">Color</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Auditory_perception" class="mw-redirect" title="Auditory perception">Auditory perception (hearing)</a></li>

<li><a href="Equilibrioception" class="mw-redirect" title="Equilibrioception">Equilibrioception (balance)</a></li>

<li><a href="Sense_of_smell" title="Sense of smell">Olfaction (smell)</a></li>

<li><a href="Taste" title="Taste">Gustation (taste or flavor)</a></li>

<li><a href="Touch" class="mw-redirect" title="Touch">Touch</a>

<ul><li><a href="Mechanoreception" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanoreception">mechanoreception</a></li>

<li><a href="Nociception" title="Nociception">nociception (pain)</a></li>

<li><a href="Thermoception" title="Thermoception">thermoception</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Interoception" title="Interoception">Internal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Proprioception" title="Proprioception">Proprioception</a></li>

<li><a href="Hunger_(physiology)" title="Hunger (physiology)">Hunger</a></li>

<li><a href="Thirst" title="Thirst">Thirst</a></li>

<li><a href="Suffocation" class="mw-redirect" title="Suffocation">Suffocation</a></li>

<li><a href="Nausea" title="Nausea">Nausea</a></li>

<li><a href="Visceral_pain" title="Visceral pain">Visceral pain</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Nonhuman" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonhuman">Nonhuman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sense" title="Sense">Animal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Electroreception" class="mw-redirect" title="Electroreception">Electroreception</a></li>

<li><a href="Magnetoreception" title="Magnetoreception">Magnetoreception</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal_echolocation" title="Animal echolocation">Echolocation</a></li>

<li><a href="Infrared_sensing_in_vampire_bats" title="Infrared sensing in vampire bats">Infrared sensing in vampire bats</a></li>

<li><a href="Infrared_sensing_in_snakes" title="Infrared sensing in snakes">Infrared sensing in snakes</a></li>

<li><a href="Surface_wave_detection" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface wave detection">Surface wave detection</a></li>

<li><a href="Frog_hearing_and_communication" title="Frog hearing and communication">Frog hearing</a></li>

<li><a href="Vision_in_toads" title="Vision in toads">Toad vision</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Plant_perception_(physiology)" title="Plant perception (physiology)">Plant</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Photomorphogenesis" title="Photomorphogenesis">Photomorphogenesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Gravitropism" title="Gravitropism">Gravitropism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Machine_perception" title="Machine perception">Artificial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Robotic_sensing" title="Robotic sensing">Robotic sensing</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_vision" title="Computer vision">Computer vision</a></li>

<li><a href="Machine_hearing" class="mw-redirect" title="Machine hearing">Machine hearing</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types of <a href="Sensory_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory receptor">sensory receptors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Mechanoreceptor" title="Mechanoreceptor">Mechanoreceptor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Baroreceptor" title="Baroreceptor">Baroreceptor</a></li>

<li><a href="Mechanotransduction" title="Mechanotransduction">Mechanotransduction</a></li>

<li><a href="Lamellar_corpuscle" class="mw-redirect" title="Lamellar corpuscle">Lamellar corpuscle</a></li>

<li><a href="Tactile_corpuscle" title="Tactile corpuscle">Tactile corpuscle</a></li>

<li><a href="Merkel_nerve_ending" title="Merkel nerve ending">Merkel nerve ending</a></li>

<li><a href="Bulbous_corpuscle" title="Bulbous corpuscle">Bulbous corpuscle</a></li>

<li><a href="Campaniform_sensilla" title="Campaniform sensilla">Campaniform sensilla</a></li>

<li><a href="Slit_sensilla" title="Slit sensilla">Slit sensilla</a></li>

<li><a href="Stretch_receptor" title="Stretch receptor">Stretch receptor</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Photoreceptor</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Photoreceptor_cell" title="Photoreceptor cell">Photoreceptor cell</a></li>

<li><a href="IpRGC" class="mw-redirect" title="IpRGC">ipRGC</a></li>

<li><a href="Photopigment" title="Photopigment">Photopigment</a></li>

<li><a href="Aureochromes" title="Aureochromes">Aureochrome</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Chemoreceptor" title="Chemoreceptor">Chemoreceptor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Taste_receptor" title="Taste receptor">Taste receptor</a></li>

<li><a href="Olfactory_receptor" title="Olfactory receptor">Olfactory receptor</a></li>

<li><a href="Osmoreceptor" title="Osmoreceptor">Osmoreceptor</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Thermoreceptor" title="Thermoreceptor">Thermoreceptor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cilium#Sensing_the_extracellular_environment" title="Cilium">Cilium</a></li>

<li><a href="TRP_channels" class="mw-redirect" title="TRP channels">TRP channels</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Nociceptor" title="Nociceptor">Nociceptor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Nociceptin_receptor#Pain_circuitry" title="Nociceptin receptor">Nociceptin receptor</a></li>

<li><a href="Juxtacapillary_receptors" title="Juxtacapillary receptors">Juxtacapillary receptor</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Disorders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Vision_disorder" title="Vision disorder">Visual</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Visual_impairment" title="Visual impairment">Visual impairment</a></li>

<li><a href="Alice_in_Wonderland_syndrome" title="Alice in Wonderland syndrome">Alice in Wonderland syndrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Amaurosis" title="Amaurosis">Amaurosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Anopsia" title="Anopsia">Anopsia</a></li>

<li><a href="Color_blindness" title="Color blindness">Color blindness</a></li>

<li><a href="Diplopia" title="Diplopia">Diplopia</a></li>

<li><a href="Hemeralopia" title="Hemeralopia">Hemeralopia</a> and <a href="Nyctalopia" title="Nyctalopia">Nyctalopia</a></li>

<li><a href="Optic_neuropathy" title="Optic neuropathy">Optic neuropathy</a></li>

<li><a href="Oscillopsia" title="Oscillopsia">Oscillopsia</a></li>

<li><a href="Palinopsia" title="Palinopsia">Palinopsia</a></li>

<li><a href="Papilledema" title="Papilledema">Papilledema</a></li>

<li><a href="Photophobia" title="Photophobia">Photophobia</a></li>

<li><a href="Photopsia" title="Photopsia">Photopsia</a></li>

<li><a href="Cerebral_polyopia" title="Cerebral polyopia">Polyopia</a></li>

<li><a href="Scotoma" title="Scotoma">Scotoma</a></li>

<li><a href="Stereoblindness" title="Stereoblindness">Stereoblindness</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_snow" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual snow">Visual snow</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Auditory_processing_disorder" title="Auditory processing disorder">Auditory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Amblyaudia" title="Amblyaudia">Amblyaudia</a></li>

<li><a href="Auditory_agnosia" title="Auditory agnosia">Auditory agnosia</a></li>

<li><a href="Auditory_hallucination" title="Auditory hallucination">Auditory hallucination</a></li>

<li><a href="Auditory_verbal_agnosia" title="Auditory verbal agnosia">Auditory verbal agnosia</a></li>

<li><a href="Cortical_deafness" title="Cortical deafness">Cortical deafness</a></li>

<li><a href="Hearing_loss" title="Hearing loss">Hearing loss</a></li>

<li><a href="Microwave_auditory_effect" title="Microwave auditory effect">Microwave auditory effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Music-specific_disorders" title="Music-specific disorders">Music-specific disorders</a></li>

<li><a href="Palinopsia" title="Palinopsia">Palinopsia</a></li>

<li><a href="Spatial_hearing_loss" title="Spatial hearing loss">Spatial hearing loss</a></li>

<li><a href="Tinnitus" title="Tinnitus">Tinnitus</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Balance_disorder" title="Balance disorder">Vestibular</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Vertigo" title="Vertigo">Vertigo</a></li>

<li><a href="Labyrinthine_fistula" title="Labyrinthine fistula">Labyrinthine fistula</a></li>

<li><a href="Labyrinthitis" title="Labyrinthitis">Labyrinthitis</a></li>

<li><a href="M%C3%A9ni%C3%A8re's_disease" title="Ménière's disease">Ménière's disease</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Olfaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfaction">Olfactory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anosmia" title="Anosmia">Anosmia</a></li>

<li><a href="Dysosmia" title="Dysosmia">Dysosmia</a></li>

<li><a href="Hyperosmia" title="Hyperosmia">Hyperosmia</a></li>

<li><a href="Hyposmia" title="Hyposmia">Hyposmia</a></li>

<li><a href="Olfactory_reference_syndrome" title="Olfactory reference syndrome">Olfactory reference syndrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Parosmia" title="Parosmia">Parosmia</a></li>

<li><a href="Phantosmia" title="Phantosmia">Phantosmia</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Taste_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Taste disorder">Gustatory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ageusia" title="Ageusia">Ageusia</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypergeusia" title="Hypergeusia">Hypergeusia</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypogeusia" title="Hypogeusia">Hypogeusia</a></li>

<li><a href="Parageusia" class="mw-redirect" title="Parageusia">Parageusia</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Somatosensory_disorder" title="Somatosensory disorder">Tactile</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Astereognosis" title="Astereognosis">Astereognosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Charcot%E2%80%93Marie%E2%80%93Tooth_disease" title="Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease">CMT disease</a></li>

<li><a href="Formication" title="Formication">Formication</a></li>

<li><a href="Hyperesthesia" title="Hyperesthesia">Hyperesthesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypoesthesia" title="Hypoesthesia">Hypoesthesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Paresthesia" title="Paresthesia">Paresthesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Tactile_hallucination" title="Tactile hallucination">Tactile hallucination</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nociception (pain)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Hyperalgesia" title="Hyperalgesia">Hyperalgesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypoalgesia" title="Hypoalgesia">Hypoalgesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Pain_dissociation" class="mw-redirect" title="Pain dissociation">Pain dissociation</a></li>

<li><a href="Phantom_pain" title="Phantom pain">Phantom pain</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proprioception</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Asomatognosia" title="Asomatognosia">Asomatognosia</a></li>

<li><a href="Phantom_limb" title="Phantom limb">Phantom limb syndrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Somatoparaphrenia" title="Somatoparaphrenia">Somatoparaphrenia</a></li>

<li><a href="Supernumerary_phantom_limb" title="Supernumerary phantom limb">Supernumerary phantom limb</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Multimodal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Agnosia" title="Agnosia">Agnosia</a></li>

<li><a href="Allochiria" title="Allochiria">Allochiria</a></li>

<li><a href="Derealization" title="Derealization">Derealization</a></li>

<li><a href="Hallucination" title="Hallucination">Hallucination</a></li>

<li><a href="Sensory_processing_disorder" title="Sensory processing disorder">Sensory processing disorder</a></li>

<li><a href="Synesthesia" title="Synesthesia">Synesthesia</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biases and errors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Illusion" title="Illusion">Illusion</a> · <a href="Pareidolia" title="Pareidolia">Pareidolia</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> Category</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q160402#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1725" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q160402#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1725" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.worldcat.org/fast/1057622">FAST</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4064317-7">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85099708">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00573001">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datos.bne.es/resource/XX526218">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007536098605171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/46ff7b99-25a1-454a-9dc3-09a132d40c59">Yale LUX</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-08-02" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Perception&oldid=1303809263">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

</div>

</div></div>

</div>

</main>

</div>

</body></html>